In Situ Quenching of Trialkylphosphine Reducing Agents Using Water-Soluble PEG-Azides Improves Maleimide Conjugation to Proteins

Kinetic Modeling of the Antibody Disulfide Bond Reduction Reaction With Integrated Prediction of the Drug Load Profile for Cysteine-Conjugated ADCs

Antibody-drug conjugates (ADC) constitute a groundbreaking advancement in the field of targeted therapy. In the widely utilized cysteine conjugation, the cytotoxic payload is attached to reduced interchain disulfides which involves a reduction of the native monoclonal antibody (mAb). This reaction needs to be thoroughly understood and controlled as it influences the critical quality attributes (CQAs) of the final ADC product, such as the drug-to-antibody ratio (DAR) and the drug load distribution (DLD). However, existing methodologies lack a mechanistic description of the relationship between process parameters and CQAs. In this context, kinetic modeling provides comprehensive reaction understanding, facilitating the model-based optimization of reduction reaction parameters and potentially reduces the experimental effort needed to develop a robust process. With this study, we introduce an integrated modeling framework consisting of a reduction kinetic model for the species formed during the mAb reduction reaction in combination with a regression model to quantify the number of conjugated drugs by DAR and DLD. The species formed during reduction will be measured by analytical capillary gel electrophoresis (CGE), and the DAR and DLD will be derived from reversed-phase (RP) chromatography. First, we present the development of a reduction kinetic model to describe the impact of reducing agent excess and reaction temperature on the kinetic, by careful investigation of different reaction networks and sets of kinetic rates. Second, we introduce a cross-analytical approach based on multiple linear regression (MLR), wherein CGE data is converted into the RP-derived DAR/DLD. By coupling this with the newly developed reduction kinetic model, an integrated model encompassing the two consecutive reaction steps, reduction and conjugation, is created to predict the final DAR/DLD from initial reduction reaction conditions. The integrated model is finally utilized for an in silico screening to analyze the effect of the reduction conditions, TCEP excess, temperature and reaction time, directly on the final ADC product.

Engineered reversible inhibition of SpyCatcher reactivity enables rapid generation of bispecific antibodies

The precise regulation of protein function is essential in biological systems and a key goal in chemical biology and protein engineering. Here, we describe a straightforward method to engineer functional control into the isopeptide bond-forming SpyTag/SpyCatcher protein ligation system. First, we perform a cysteine scan of the structured region of SpyCatcher. Except for two known reactive and catalytic residues, none of these mutations abolish reactivity. In a second screening step, we modify the cysteines with disulfide bond-forming small molecules. Here we identify 8 positions at which modifications strongly inhibit reactivity. This inhibition can be reversed by reducing agents. We call such a reversibly inhibitable SpyCatcher "SpyLock". Using "BiLockCatcher", a genetic fusion of wild-type SpyCatcher and SpyLock, and SpyTagged antibody fragments, we generate bispecific antibodies in a single, scalable format, facilitating the screening of a large number of antibody combinations. We demonstrate this approach by screening anti-PD-1/anti-PD-L1 bispecific antibodies using a cellular reporter assay.

Quantum Dot-Fab' Conjugates as Compact Immunolabels for Microtubule Imaging and Cell Classification

Antibodies and their conjugates of fluorescent labels are widely applied in life sciences research and clinical pathology. Among diverse label types, compact quantum dots (QDs) provide advantages of multispectral multiplexing, bright signals in the deep red and infrared, and low steric hindrance. However, QD-antibody conjugates have random orientation of the antigen-binding domain which may interfere with labeling and are large (20-30 nm) and heterogeneous, which limits penetration into biospecimens. Here, we develop conjugates of compact QDs and Fab' antibody fragments as primary immunolabels. Fab' fragments are conjugated site-specifically through sulfhydryl groups distal to antigen-binding domains, and the multivalent conjugates have small and homogeneous sizes (∼12 nm) near those of full-sized antibodies. Their performance as immunolabels for intracellular antigens is evaluated quantitatively by metrics of microtubule labeling density and connectivity in fixed cells and for cytological identification in fixed brain specimens, comparing results with probes based on spectrally-matched dyes. QD-Fab' conjugates outperformed QD conjugates of full-sized antibodies and could be imaged with bright signals with 1-photon and 2-photon excitation. The results demonstrate a requirement for smaller bioaffinity agents and site-specific orientation for the success of nanomaterial-based labels to enhance penetration in biospecimens and minimize nonspecific staining.

A Generic Approach for Miniaturized Unbiased High-Throughput Screens of Bispecific Antibodies and Biparatopic Antibody-Drug Conjugates

The toolbox of modern antibody engineering allows the design of versatile novel functionalities exceeding nature's repertoire. Many bispecific antibodies comprise heterodimeric Fc portions recently validated through the approval of several bispecific biotherapeutics. While heterodimerization methodologies have been established for low-throughput large-scale production, few approaches exist to overcome the bottleneck of large combinatorial screening efforts that are essential for the identification of the best possible bispecific antibody. This report presents a novel, robust and miniaturized heterodimerization process based on controlled Fab-arm exchange (cFAE), which is applicable to a variety of heterodimeric formats and compatible with automated high-throughput screens. Proof of applicability was shown for two therapeutic molecule classes and two relevant functional screening read-outs. First, the miniaturized production of biparatopic anti-c-MET antibody-drug conjugates served as a proof of concept for their applicability in cytotoxic screenings on tumor cells with different target expression levels. Second, the automated workflow enabled a large unbiased combinatorial screening of biparatopic antibodies and the identification of hits mediating potent c-MET degradation. The presented workflow utilizes standard equipment and may serve as a facile, efficient and robust method for the discovery of innovative therapeutic agents in many laboratories worldwide.

High-Density Immobilization of TCEP on Silica Beads for Efficient Disulfide Reduction and Thiol Alkylation in Peptides

Tris-(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine (TCEP) linked to agarose beads is widely used for reducing disulfide bridges in proteins and peptides. The immobilization of TCEP on beads allows efficient removal after reduction to prevent its reaction with alkylating reagents and thus interference with conjugation reactions. However, a limitation of agarose TCEP is its relatively low reduction capacity per milliliter of wet beads (about 15 μmol/ml), making it unsuitable for the reduction of disulfides from molecules at millimolar concentrations. In this work, we tested the immobilization of TCEP to a range of different solid supports and found that conjugation to silica gel offers TCEP beads with about 8-fold higher reduction capacity (129±16 μmol/ml wet beads). We show that it allows reducing disulfide-cyclized peptides at millimolar concentrations for subsequent cyclization by bis-electrophile linker reagents. Given the substantially higher reduction capacity, the robust performance in different solvents, the low cost of the silica gel, and the ease of functionalization with TCEP, the silica gel-TCEP is suited for reducing disulfide bridges in essentially any peptide and is particularly useful for reducing peptides at higher concentrations.

Orthogonal Versatile Interacting Peptide Tags for Imaging Cellular Proteins

Genetic tags are transformative tools for investigating the function, localization, and interactions of cellular proteins. Most studies today are reliant on selective labeling of more than one protein to obtain comprehensive information on a protein's behavior in situ. Some proteins can be analyzed by fusion to a protein tag, such as green fluorescent protein, HaloTag, or SNAP-Tag. Other proteins benefit from labeling via small peptide tags, such as the recently reported versatile interacting peptide (VIP) tags. VIP tags enable observations of protein localization and trafficking with bright fluorophores or nanoparticles. Here, we expand the VIP toolkit by presenting two new tags: TinyVIPER and PunyVIPER. These two tags were designed for use with MiniVIPER for labeling up to three distinct proteins at once in cells. Labeling is mediated by the formation of a high-affinity, biocompatible heterodimeric coiled coil. Each tag was validated by fluorescence microscopy, including observation of transferrin receptor 1 trafficking in live cells. We verified that labeling via each tag is highly specific for one- or two-color imaging. Last, the self-sorting tags were used for simultaneous labeling of three protein targets (i.e., TOMM20, histone 2B, and actin) in fixed cells, highlighting their utility for multicolor microscopy. MiniVIPER, TinyVIPER, and PunyVIPER are small and robust peptide tags for selective labeling of cellular proteins.

A BODIPY-Based Probe Enables Fluorogenicity via Thiol-Dependent Modulation of Fluorophore Aggregation

Given the popular usage of BODIPY fluorophores in biological research, their propensity to aggregate in aqueous solution and impact their spectroscopic properties arguably warrants more attention. The probe under study herein serves as a case in point. A para-maleimide-substituted meso-phenyl BODIPY (p-MB) had previously been characterized in organic media, where its inherently high fluorescence ruled out its fluorogenic potential. Here, we have found that in aqueous solution, p-MB behaves differently, exhibiting a much-reduced fluorescence as a result of aggregation-caused quenching (ACQ). Additionally, p-MB is capable of responding to complementarily reactive substrates, including thiols and TCEP, to generate a substantial turn-on signal. The fluorescence restoration is largest when it reacts with those containing adjacent ionizable groups. By being part of a polar conjugate, p-MB assumes a disaggregated form, circumventing ACQ and unleashing up to ~1000-fold fluorescence enhancement through apparent disaggregation-induced emission (DIE). While our results support DIE as the turn-on mechanism, we found that the reactivity of the probe is much lower when it is given time to form stable aggregates. Therefore, contrary to the conventional depiction that a DIE probe works by dispersing from preformed aggregates to react with the target, our results suggest that it functions via a target-mediated inhibition of probe aggregation. Altogether, our work highlights the aggregation issue often faced by BODIPY-based probes and demonstrates how that can be exploited for turn-on sensing application. Furthermore, it reconstructs a different pathway for the DIE mechanism.

Redox active or thiol reactive? Optimization of rapid screens to identify less evident nuisance compounds

Compounds that exhibit assay interference or undesirable mechanisms of bioactivity are routinely encountered in assays at various stages of drug discovery. We observed that assays for the investigation of thiol-reactive and redox-active compounds have not been collected in a comprehensive review. Here, we review these assays and subject them to experimental optimization to improve their reliability. We demonstrate the usefulness of our assay cascade by assaying a library of bioactive compounds, chemical probes, and a set of approved drugs. These high-throughput assays should complement the array of wet-lab and in silico assays during the initial stages of hit discovery campaigns to pursue only hit compounds with tractable mechanisms of action. Teaser: We provide an overview of assays to detect redox active and thiol reactive compounds and the robust protocols for identification of nuisance compounds during early stages of drug discovery programs.

Breaking a Couple: Disulfide Reducing Agents

Cysteine is present in a large number of natural and synthetic (bio)molecules. Although the thiol side chain of Cys can be in a free form, in most cases it forms a disulfide bond either with a second Cys (bridge) or with another thiol, as in the case of protecting groups. Efficient reduction of these disulfide bridges is a requirement for many applications of Cys-containing molecules in the fields of chemistry and biochemistry. Here we review reducing methods for disulfide bonds, taking into consideration the solubility of the substrates when selecting the appropriate reducing reagent.

Adequate Reducing Conditions Enable Conjugation of Oxidized Peptides to Polymers by One-Pot Thiol Click Chemistry

Thiol(-click) chemistry has been extensively investigated to conjugate (bio)molecules to polymers. Handling of cysteine-containing molecules may however be cumbersome, especially in the case of fast-oxidizing coiled-coil-forming peptides. In the present study, we investigated the practicality of a one-pot process to concomitantly reduce and conjugate an oxidized peptide to a polymer. Three thiol-based conjugation chemistries (vinyl sulfone (VS), maleimide, and pyridyldithiol) were assayed along with three reducing agents (tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine (TCEP), dithiothreitol, and β-mercaptoethanol). Seven out of the nine possible combinations significantly enhanced the conjugation yield, provided that an adequate concentration of reductant was used. Among them, the coincubation of an oxidized peptide with TCEP and a VS-modified polymer displayed the highest level of conjugation. Our results also provide insights into two topics that currently lack consensus: TCEP is stable in 10 mM phosphate buffered saline and it reacts with thiol-alkylating agents at submillimolar concentrations, and thus should be carefully used in order to avoid interference with thiol-based conjugation reactions.