Rapid Detection of Severe Fever with Thrombocytopenia Syndrome Virus via Colloidal Gold Immunochromatography Assay

Highly resistant and sensitive colorimetric immunochromatographic assay for sibutramine (SBT) illegally adulterated into diet food based on PDA/AuNP labelling

A gold nanoparticle (AuNP) based immunochromatographic assay strip is a valuable tool for monitoring chemicals in foods. However, the sensitive ICA strip for SBT is rarely reported due to the fact that monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against SBT with high affinity are commercially unavailable. Herein, a monoclonal antibody against SBT was prepared through a designed hapten with a carboxyl end-capped space arm. The obtained mAb showed high affinity for SBT and N-desmethylsibutramine, a metabolite of SBT. Furthermore, a series of core-shell NPs, polydopamine (PDA) coated AuNPs (PDA/AuNPs) with controlled shell thickness and packing density were synthesized. The obtained PDA/AuNP-mAb conjugate demonstrated high tolerance to salt and good stability in a wide pH range, which is beneficial for improving the matrix interference common in ICA. As a result, PDA/AuNP-based ICA could quantify SBT in the range of 3.39-69.60 ng mL-1 with a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.98 ng mL-1. This novel ICA improved the sensitivity of the traditional AuNP-based ICA by nearly 12 times. Method validation was conducted with spiked samples of slimming food and human serum and compared with HPLC-MS/MS. Consistent results indicated that high sensitivity, accuracy, and reliability of the PDA/AuNP-based ICA approach were achieved. To the best of our knowledge, this study reported the most sensitive immunoassay for SBT thus far.

Paper based SERS aptasensor towards dual-modal detection of interferon gamma

Interferon gamma (IFN-γ), can serve as an active diagnostic biomarker of a broad spectrum of diseases such as auto inflammatory disease, viral and bacterial, parasites infections, and tumor control. The low physiological concentration of IFN-γ at pg‧mL-1 level for most diseases such as tuberculosis and lung cancer demand highly sensitive and selective detection methods. To achieve the goal, a novel paper-based SERS aptasensor towards rapid, dual-modal (visual and ultrasensitive) detection of IFN-γ is presented for the first time. A lateral flow platform with low-cost and user-friendly format in this study is adopted. The detection relies on the competition of the specific aptamer sequence of IFN-γ between its complementary DNA in the test line and IFN-γ in the sample solution. The presence of IFN-γ can be easily observed in the test line by naked eye and detected at pg‧mL-1 level by a portable Raman spectrometer. Linear detection range of 10-2000 pg‧mL-1 could be obtained with detection limit of 8.7 pg‧mL-1. In addition, as low as 10 pg/mL of IFN-γ in human serum could be detected, which is comparable with the results from ELISA.Clinical Relevance- This study establishes a simple, rapid, and low-cost assay for dual-modal detection of IFN-γ, which is in urgent demand in clinics especially vitally important in resource-limited areas.

Quantitative determination of four mycotoxins in cereal by fluorescent microsphere based immunochromatographic assay

BACKGROUND

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi, which have serious effects on humans and animals. In this study, we selected the monodispersed polystyrene fluorescent microspheres with good luminescence performance and strong stability as markers to conjugate with four mycotoxins antibodies for preparing fluorescent probes. We have developed a fluorescent microsphere based immunochromatographic assay (FMICA) to detect sensitively and quickly zearalenone (ZEN), aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁ ), fumonisin B₁ (FB₁ ), and ochratoxin A (OTA) in cereal.

RESULTS

Under optimal experimental conditions, the procedure of this method can be completed within 10 min. The limit of detection (LOD) of FMICA for ZEN, AFB₁ , FB₁ , and OTA is 0.072, 0.093, 0.32, and 0.19 μg L^-1 , respectively. And FMICA has good specificity and no cross-reactivity with other mycotoxins. Four mycotoxins in naturally contaminated cereal samples (corn, rice, and oat) are detected by this method, and the results are highly consistent with that of ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS).

CONCLUSION

The developed FMICA has good accuracy, high sensitivity, simplicity, convenience, rapidity, and low cost, and it could be employed for sensitive and quantitative detecting of mycotoxins in cereal on-site. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Carbon black as a colorimetric label for an immunochromatographic test strip for severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus detection

To combat the ongoing threat posed by severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus (SFTSV), especially in underserved areas, there is an urgent need for an affordable and reliable point-of-care diagnostic tool. This study presents a carbon black-based immunochromatographic test strip (CB-ICTS) for the detection of SFTSV, which is both quick and easy to operate. The study optimized the specific steps for carbon black-labeled antibodies, as well as the amount of carbon black and anti-SFTSV antibody used. Under optimal experimental conditions, the linear range and limit of detection of the CB-ICTS were evaluated using different concentrations of SFTSV standard samples. The detection range of the CB-ICTS for SFTSV was found to be 0.1-1000 ng mL^-1, with a limit of detection of 100 pg mL^-1. The precision and accuracy of the CB-ICTS were assessed by examining spiked healthy human serum samples, which displayed recoveries ranging from 91.58 to 105.4% with a coefficient of variation of less than 11%. This work evaluated the specificity of the CB-ICTS using various biomarkers (CA125, AFP, CA199, CEA, and HCG) and demonstrated that the CB-ICTS is highly specific for detecting SFTSV, suggesting its potential for the early diagnosis of SFTSV. In addition, the study evaluated the CB-ICTS in serum samples from patients with SFTSV, and the results were highly consistent with those detected by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method. Overall, this study demonstrates the feasibility and effectiveness of using the CB-ICTS as a reliable point-of-care diagnostic tool for the early detection of SFTSV.

High-Density Gold Nanoparticles Implanted on Mg/Fe LDH Nanoflowers Assisted Lateral Flow Immuno-Dipstick Assay for Visual Detection of Human Epididymal Protein 4

The timelier and more accurate the diagnosis of the disease, the higher the patient’s survival rate. Human epididymal protein 4 (HE4) has great significance as a biomarker of concern for reflecting ovarian cancer. Herein, we prepared a novel optical label that can be used in lateral-flow immuno-dipstick assay (LFIA) for sensitive visual detection of HE4 by implanting hydrophobic gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) at high density in Mg/Fe LDH nanoflowers (MF NFs). MF NFs with large specific surface area, high porosity, abundant active binding sites, and stable structure were employed for the first time as templates to directly anchor Au NPs in the organic phase. After simple modification with an optimized amount of branched polyethyleneimine, not only could MF@Au NFs be dispersed in the aqueous phase, but also amino functional groups were introduced on its surface to facilitate subsequent antibody coupling steps. The limit of detection reaches 50 pM with a detection range of 50 to 1000 pM. This work initially explored how MF NFs can be used to load signal labels with ideal stability and signal amplification capabilities, which greatly improves the practicability of LFIA and highlights its important role in the field of rapid diagnostics.

Lateral flow assays (LFA) as an alternative medical diagnosis method for detection of virus species: The intertwine of nanotechnology with sensing strategies

Viruses are responsible for multiple infections in humans that impose huge health burdens on individuals and populations worldwide. Therefore, numerous diagnostic methods and strategies have been developed for prevention, management, and decreasing the burden of viral diseases, each having its advantages and limitations. Viral infections are commonly detected using serological and nucleic acid-based methods. However, these conventional and clinical approaches have some limitations that can be resolved by implementing other detector devices. Therefore, the search for sensitive, selective, portable, and costless approaches as efficient alternative clinical methods for point of care testing (POCT) analysis has gained much attention in recent years. POCT is one of the ultimate goals in virus detection, and thus, the tests need to be rapid, specific, sensitive, accessible, and user-friendly. In this review, after a brief overview of viruses and their characteristics, the conventional viral detection methods, the clinical approaches, and their advantages and shortcomings are firstly explained. Then, LFA systems working principles, benefits, classification are discussed. Furthermore, the studies regarding designing and employing LFAs in diagnosing different types of viruses, especially SARS-CoV-2 as a main concern worldwide and innovations in the LFAs' approaches and designs, are comprehensively discussed here. Furthermore, several strategies addressed in some studies for overcoming LFA limitations like low sensitivity are reviewed. Numerous techniques are adopted to increase sensitivity and perform quantitative detection. Employing several visualization methods, using different labeling reporters, integrating LFAs with other detection methods to benefit from both LFA and the integrated detection device advantages, and designing unique membranes to increase reagent reactivity, are some of the approaches that are highlighted.

Recent advances in detection technologies for COVID-19

Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a highly infectious respiratory illness that was caused by the SARS-CoV-2. It spread around the world in just a few months and became a worldwide pandemic. Quick and accurate diagnosis of infected patients is very important for controlling transmission. In addition to the commonly used Real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) detection techniques, other diagnostic techniques are also emerging endlessly. This article reviews the current diagnostic methods for COVID-19 and discusses their advantages and disadvantages. It provides an important reference for the diagnosis of COVID-19.

Gold nanoparticles in virus detection: Recent advances and potential considerations for SARS-CoV-2 testing development

Viruses are infectious agents that pose significant threats to plants, animals, and humans. The current coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic, which is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2), has spread globally and resulted in over 2 million deaths and immeasurable financial losses. Rapid and sensitive virus diagnostics become crucially important in controlling the spread of a pandemic before effective treatment and vaccines are available. Gold nanoparticle (AuNP)‐based testing holds great potential for this urgent unmet biomedical need. In this review, we describe the most recent advances in AuNP‐based viral detection applications. In addition, we discuss considerations for the design of AuNP‐based SARS‐CoV‐2 testings. Finally, we highlight and propose important parameters to consider for the future development of effective AuNP‐based testings that would be critical for not only this COVID‐19 pandemic, but also potential future outbreaks.

This article is categorized under:

Diagnostic Tools > Biosensing

Diagnostic Tools > In Vitro Nanoparticle‐Based Sensing

Rapid and sensitive detection of rotavirus by surface-enhanced Raman scattering immunochromatography

A surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) immunochromatographic assay (ICA) has been developed for rapid, ultrasensitive, and quantitative detection of rotavirus in feces using double Raman molecule-labeled Au-core Ag-shell nanoparticles. The Raman signals are generated by 5,5'-dithiobis-(2-nitrobenzoic acid) and the intensity of the characteristic peak at 1334^-1 cm was detected as the analytical signal. The Raman signals were enhanced by the SERS-enhanced effect of both Au and Ag, the large amount of Raman molecules, and the hot-spot effect in the narrow gap between the Au core and Ag shell. The SERS ICA can quantitatively detect rotavirus in a concentration range of 8- 40,000 pg/mL, with detection limits of 80 pg/mL and 8 pg/mL based on naked eye observation and SERS signal detection, respectively. No cross-reaction was observed from other common pathogens. The standard deviation of the intra- and inter-batch repetitive tests is less than 10%, and the coincidence between SERS ICA and RT-qPCR as well as commercial colloidal gold ICA is 100%. The results indicated that this SERS ICA is able to quantitatively detect rotavirus in feces in 20 min with high sensitivity, selectivity, reproducibility, and accuracy and might be a promising method for the early detection of rotavirus in clinical analysis.

Quantitative ciprofloxacin on-site rapid detections using quantum dot microsphere based immunochromatographic test strips

The ciprofloxacin (CIP) abuse has caused many problems threatening to human health. Here, we design the quantum dot microsphere (QDM) based immunochromatographic quantitative CIP test strip: when the sample under detection contains CIP, the QDM-monoclonal antibody (mAb) probes bound with the CIP and cannot be captured by CIP-bovine serum albumin (BSA) conjugation dispersed on the T lines, reducing the fluorescence intensities. These test strips can provide a low detection limit of 0.05 ng/mL and a wide linear detection range from 0.1 ng/mL to 100 ng/mL in high sensitivity and accuracy as well as good selectivity, reproducibility and stability. Moreover, a smartphone based test strip reader with the size of 85 mm × 48 mm × 44 mm is also fabricated using 3-D printing to automatically and quantitatively detect CIP. The whole process of CIP detection can be finished within 15 min, but only cost ~1 RMB (10 cents).

Enzyme-Antibody-Modified Gold Nanoparticle Probes for the Ultrasensitive Detection of Nucleocapsid Protein in SFTSV

As humans and climate change continue to alter the landscape, novel disease risk scenarios have emerged. Sever fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome (SFTS), an emerging tick-borne infectious disease first discovered in rural areas of central China in 2009, is caused by a novel bunyavirus (SFTSV). The potential for SFTS to spread to other countries in combination with its high fatality rate, possible human-to-human transmission, and extensive prevalence among residents and domesticated animals in endemic regions make the disease a severe threat to public health. Because of the lack of preventive vaccines or useful antiviral drugs, diagnosis of SFTS is the key to prevention and control of the SFTSV infection. The development of serological detection methods will greatly improve our understanding of SFTSV ecology and host tropism. We describe a highly sensitive protein detection method based on gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)—AuNP-based ELISA. The optical sensitivity enhancement of this method is due to the high loading efficiency of AuNPs to McAb. This enhances the concentration of the HRP enzyme in each immune sandwich structure. The detection limit of this method to the nucleocapsid protein (NP) of SFTSV was 0.9 pg mL⁻¹ with good specificity and reproducibility. The sensitivity of AuNP-based ELISA was higher than that of traditional ELISA and was comparable to real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). The probes are stable for 120 days at 4 °C. This can be applied to diagnosis and hopefully can be developed into a commercial ELISA kit. The ultrasensitive detection of SFTSV will increase our understanding of the distribution and spread of SFTSV, thus helping to monitor the changes in tick-borne pathogen SFTSV risk in the environment.

Rapid Detection of IgM Antibodies against the SARS-CoV-2 Virus via Colloidal Gold Nanoparticle-Based Lateral-Flow Assay

Last year, the novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) emerged in Wuhan, and it has rapidly spread to many other countries and regions. COVID-19 exhibits a strong human-to-human transmission infectivity and could cause acute respiratory diseases. Asymptomatic carriers are able to infect other healthy persons, and this poses a challenge for public health; the World Health Organization (WHO) has already announced COVID-19 as a global pandemic. Nucleic acid testing, considered as the current primary method for diagnosing COVID-19, might lead to false negatives and is difficult to be applied for every suspected patient because of the existence of asymptomatic carriers. Meanwhile, detecting specific antibodies in blood, such as the IgM antibody, against the SARS-CoV-2 virus is another choice for COVID-19 diagnosis, as it is widely accepted that IgM is an important indicator in the acute infection period. In this study, a colloidal gold nanoparticle-based lateral-flow (AuNP-LF) assay was developed to achieve rapid diagnosis and on-site detection of the IgM antibody against the SARS-CoV-2 virus through the indirect immunochromatography method. For preparing AuNP-LF strips, the SARS-CoV-2 nucleoprotein (SARS-CoV-2 NP) was coated on an analytical membrane for sample capture, and antihuman IgM was conjugated with AuNPs to form the detecting reporter. Optimization of AuNP-LF assay was carried out by altering the pH value and the amount of antihuman IgM. The performance of AuNP-LF assay was evaluated by testing serum samples of COVID-19 patients and normal humans. The results were compared with the real-time polymerase chain reaction. The sensitivity and specificity of AuNP-LF assay were determined to be 100 and 93.3%, respectively, and an almost perfect agreement was exhibited by Kappa statistics (κ coefficient = 0.872). AuNP-LF assay showed outstanding selectivity in the detection of IgM against the SARS-CoV-2 virus with no interference from other viruses such as severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus (SFTSV) and dengue virus (DFV). AuNP-LF assay was able to achieve results within 15 min and needed only 10-20 μL serum for each test. As a whole, in the light of its advantages such as excellent specificity and stability, easy operation, low cost, and being less time-consuming, AuNP-LF assay is a feasible method for the diagnosis of COVID-19 in primary hospitals and laboratories, especially in emergency situations in which numerous samples need to be tested on time.

Rapid Detection of IgM Antibodies against the SARS-CoV-2 Virus via Colloidal Gold Nanoparticle-Based Lateral-Flow Assay

Last year, the novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) emerged in Wuhan, and it has rapidly spread to many other countries and regions. COVID-19 exhibits a strong human-to-human transmission infectivity and could cause acute respiratory diseases. Asymptomatic carriers are able to infect other healthy persons, and this poses a challenge for public health; the World Health Organization (WHO) has already announced COVID-19 as a global pandemic. Nucleic acid testing, considered as the current primary method for diagnosing COVID-19, might lead to false negatives and is difficult to be applied for every suspected patient because of the existence of asymptomatic carriers. Meanwhile, detecting specific antibodies in blood, such as the IgM antibody, against the SARS-CoV-2 virus is another choice for COVID-19 diagnosis, as it is widely accepted that IgM is an important indicator in the acute infection period. In this study, a colloidal gold nanoparticle-based lateral-flow (AuNP-LF) assay was developed to achieve rapid diagnosis and on-site detection of the IgM antibody against the SARS-CoV-2 virus through the indirect immunochromatography method. For preparing AuNP-LF strips, the SARS-CoV-2 nucleoprotein (SARS-CoV-2 NP) was coated on an analytical membrane for sample capture, and antihuman IgM was conjugated with AuNPs to form the detecting reporter. Optimization of AuNP-LF assay was carried out by altering the pH value and the amount of antihuman IgM. The performance of AuNP-LF assay was evaluated by testing serum samples of COVID-19 patients and normal humans. The results were compared with the real-time polymerase chain reaction. The sensitivity and specificity of AuNP-LF assay were determined to be 100 and 93.3%, respectively, and an almost perfect agreement was exhibited by Kappa statistics (κ coefficient = 0.872). AuNP-LF assay showed outstanding selectivity in the detection of IgM against the SARS-CoV-2 virus with no interference from other viruses such as severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus (SFTSV) and dengue virus (DFV). AuNP-LF assay was able to achieve results within 15 min and needed only 10-20 μL serum for each test. As a whole, in the light of its advantages such as excellent specificity and stability, easy operation, low cost, and being less time-consuming, AuNP-LF assay is a feasible method for the diagnosis of COVID-19 in primary hospitals and laboratories, especially in emergency situations in which numerous samples need to be tested on time.

A Method To Prevent SARS-CoV-2 IgM False Positives in Gold Immunochromatography and Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assays

We set out to investigate the interference factors that led to false-positive novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) IgM detection results using gold immunochromatography assay (GICA) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and the corresponding solutions. GICA and ELISA were used to detect SARS-CoV-2 IgM in 86 serum samples, including 5 influenza A virus (Flu A) IgM-positive sera, 5 influenza B virus (Flu B) IgM-positive sera, 5 Mycoplasma pneumoniae IgM-positive sera, 5 Legionella pneumophila IgM-positive sera, 6 sera of HIV infection patients, 36 rheumatoid factor IgM (RF-IgM)-positive sera, 5 sera from hypertensive patients, 5 sera from diabetes mellitus patients, and 14 sera from novel coronavirus infection disease 19 (COVID-19) patients.

We set out to investigate the interference factors that led to false-positive novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) IgM detection results using gold immunochromatography assay (GICA) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and the corresponding solutions. GICA and ELISA were used to detect SARS-CoV-2 IgM in 86 serum samples, including 5 influenza A virus (Flu A) IgM-positive sera, 5 influenza B virus (Flu B) IgM-positive sera, 5 Mycoplasma pneumoniae IgM-positive sera, 5 Legionella pneumophila IgM-positive sera, 6 sera of HIV infection patients, 36 rheumatoid factor IgM (RF-IgM)-positive sera, 5 sera from hypertensive patients, 5 sera from diabetes mellitus patients, and 14 sera from novel coronavirus infection disease 19 (COVID-19) patients. The interference factors causing false-positive reactivity with the two methods were analyzed, and the urea dissociation test was employed to dissociate the SARS-CoV-2 IgM-positive serum using the best dissociation concentration. The two methods detected positive SARS-CoV-2 IgM in 22 mid-to-high-level-RF-IgM-positive sera and 14 sera from COVID-19 patients; the other 50 sera were negative. At a urea dissociation concentration of 6 mol/liter, SARS-CoV-2 IgM results were positive in 1 mid-to-high-level-RF-IgM-positive serum and in 14 COVID-19 patient sera detected using GICA. At a urea dissociation concentration of 4 mol/liter and with affinity index (AI) levels lower than 0.371 set to negative, SARS-CoV-2 IgM results were positive in 3 mid-to-high-level-RF-IgM-positive sera and in 14 COVID-19 patient sera detected using ELISA. The presence of RF-IgM at mid-to-high levels could lead to false-positive reactivity of SARS-CoV-2 IgM detected using GICA and ELISA, and urea dissociation tests would be helpful in reducing SARS-CoV-2 IgM false-positive results.

Rapid detection of Shiga toxin type II using lateral flow immunochromatography test strips of colorimetry and fluorimetry

Two types of lateral flow immunochromatographic test strips (LFITS) using gold nanoparticles and fluorescent CdTe quantum dots (QDs) as signal labels, respectively, were developed for Shiga toxin type II (STX2) assays. Under optimal conditions, the corresponding visual detection limits were 25 ng mL-1 and 5 ng mL-1, respectively. The test results of gold based LFITS can be recognized directly by the naked eye, whereas the visualized results of CdTe QDs based LFITS can be observed by the aid of a UV lamp. Both assays showed good specificity and stability. The inexpensive LFITS were promising for the rapid clinical detection of STX2.

Ultrasensitive Detection of Severe Fever with Thrombocytopenia Syndrome Virus Based on Immunofluorescent Carbon Dots/SiO2 Nanosphere-Based Lateral Flow Assay

Sensitive detection of severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus (SFTSV) by a point-of-care assay is of great significance for promoting clinical diagnosis. In this work, ultrasensitive detection of SFTSV was achieved by using fluorescent carbon dots/SiO2 nanospheres (CSNs) as reporters for a lateral flow assay. The prepared CSNs were resistant to extreme environments and had strong stability. The uniform CSNs with the size of about 200 nm were obtained by differential centrifugation. Their absolute quantum yields in the aqueous and solid phases are 56.3 and 36.6%, respectively. The excellent fluorescent properties of CSNs make the test strips more sensitive and have a longer assay lifetime. Thus, the visual detection limit of the lateral flow test strip based on immunofluorescent CSN (iCSN) was as low as 10 pg/mL SFTSV nucleoprotein. The sensitivity of this assay is 2 orders of magnitude higher than that of the colloidal gold-based lateral flow test strip. Besides, the assay owns good reproducibility and high specificity. Then, iCSN-based lateral flow test strips were evaluated in real samples of human serum of patients with satisfactory results. Furthermore, this assay has a general prospect for other fluorescent immunochromatography applications.

Development of DNA Aptamers against the Nucleocapsid Protein of Severe Fever with Thrombocytopenia Syndrome Virus for Diagnostic Application: Catalytic Signal Amplification using Replication Protein A-Conjugated Liposomes

Most prevalent infectious diseases worldwide are caused by mediators such as insects and characterized by high mortality and morbidity, thereby creating a global public health concern. Therefore, a sensitive, selective detection platform for diagnosing diseases in the early stages of infection is needed to prevent disease spread and to protect public health. Here, we developed novel DNA aptamers specific to the nucleocapsid protein (NP) of the severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome (SFTS) virus and synthesized ssDNA-binding protein-conjugated liposomes encapsulated with horseradish peroxidase (HRP) for application in a simple and universal platform. This platform achieved highly sensitive detection of the NP by measuring the colorimetric signal following lysis of the HRP encapsulated liposomes, mediated by a mixture of 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine and H₂O₂ solution. The limit of detection was 0.009 ng·mL^-1, and NP was successfully detected in diluted human serum with a high recovery rate. Moreover, this method was specific and did not exhibit cross-reactivity among NPs of other virus types. These results demonstrated the efficacy of the proposed method as a highly sensitive, specific, and universal diagnostic tool for potential application in monitoring of the early stages of infectious diseases.