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Eisenhut P, Marx N, Borsi G, Papež M, Ruggeri C, Baumann M, Borth N. Manipulating gene expression levels in mammalian cell factories: An outline of synthetic molecular toolboxes to achieve multiplexed control. N Biotechnol 2024; 79:1-19. [PMID: 38040288 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbt.2023.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/26/2023] [Indexed: 12/03/2023]
Abstract
Mammalian cells have developed dedicated molecular mechanisms to tightly control expression levels of their genes where the specific transcriptomic signature across all genes eventually determines the cell's phenotype. Modulating cellular phenotypes is of major interest to study their role in disease or to reprogram cells for the manufacturing of recombinant products, such as biopharmaceuticals. Cells of mammalian origin, for example Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) and Human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293) cells, are most commonly employed to produce therapeutic proteins. Early genetic engineering approaches to alter their phenotype have often been attempted by "uncontrolled" overexpression or knock-down/-out of specific genetic factors. Many studies in the past years, however, highlight that rationally regulating and fine-tuning the strength of overexpression or knock-down to an optimum level, can adjust phenotypic traits with much more precision than such "uncontrolled" approaches. To this end, synthetic biology tools have been generated that enable (fine-)tunable and/or inducible control of gene expression. In this review, we discuss various molecular tools used in mammalian cell lines and group them by their mode of action: transcriptional, post-transcriptional, translational and post-translational regulation. We discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using these tools for each cell regulatory layer and with respect to cell line engineering approaches. This review highlights the plethora of synthetic toolboxes that could be employed, alone or in combination, to optimize cellular systems and eventually gain enhanced control over the cellular phenotype to equip mammalian cell factories with the tools required for efficient production of emerging, more difficult-to-express biologics formats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Eisenhut
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology (acib GmbH), Muthgasse 11, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Nicolas Marx
- BOKU University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Institute of Animal Cell Technology and Systems Biology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Giulia Borsi
- BOKU University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Institute of Animal Cell Technology and Systems Biology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Maja Papež
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology (acib GmbH), Muthgasse 11, 1190 Vienna, Austria; BOKU University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Institute of Animal Cell Technology and Systems Biology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Caterina Ruggeri
- BOKU University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Institute of Animal Cell Technology and Systems Biology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Martina Baumann
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology (acib GmbH), Muthgasse 11, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Nicole Borth
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology (acib GmbH), Muthgasse 11, 1190 Vienna, Austria; BOKU University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Institute of Animal Cell Technology and Systems Biology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria.
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Majumdar S, Desai R, Hans A, Dandekar P, Jain R. From Efficiency to Yield: Exploring Recent Advances in CHO Cell Line Development for Monoclonal Antibodies. Mol Biotechnol 2024:10.1007/s12033-024-01060-6. [PMID: 38363529 DOI: 10.1007/s12033-024-01060-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
The increasing demand for biosimilar monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) has prompted the development of stable high-producing cell lines while simultaneously decreasing the time required for screening. Existing platforms have proven inefficient, resulting in inconsistencies in yields, growth characteristics, and quality features in the final mAb products. Selecting a suitable expression host, designing an effective gene expression system, developing a streamlined cell line generation approach, optimizing culture conditions, and defining scaling-up and purification strategies are all critical steps in the production of recombinant proteins, particularly monoclonal antibodies, in mammalian cells. As a result, an active area of study is dedicated to expression and optimizing recombinant protein production. This review explores recent breakthroughs and approaches targeted at accelerating cell line development to attain efficiency and consistency in the synthesis of therapeutic proteins, specifically monoclonal antibodies. The primary goal is to bridge the gap between rising demand and consistent, high-quality mAb production, thereby benefiting the healthcare and pharmaceutical industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarmishta Majumdar
- Department of Biological Science and Biotechnology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, 400019, India
| | - Ranjeet Desai
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, 400019, India
| | - Aakarsh Hans
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, 400019, India
| | - Prajakta Dandekar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, 400019, India.
| | - Ratnesh Jain
- Department of Biological Science and Biotechnology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, 400019, India.
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Toul M, Slonkova V, Mican J, Urminsky A, Tomkova M, Sedlak E, Bednar D, Damborsky J, Hernychova L, Prokop Z. Identification, characterization, and engineering of glycosylation in thrombolyticsa. Biotechnol Adv 2023; 66:108174. [PMID: 37182613 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2023.108174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Cardiovascular diseases, such as myocardial infarction, ischemic stroke, and pulmonary embolism, are the most common causes of disability and death worldwide. Blood clot hydrolysis by thrombolytic enzymes and thrombectomy are key clinical interventions. The most widely used thrombolytic enzyme is alteplase, which has been used in clinical practice since 1986. Another clinically used thrombolytic protein is tenecteplase, which has modified epitopes and engineered glycosylation sites, suggesting that carbohydrate modification in thrombolytic enzymes is a viable strategy for their improvement. This comprehensive review summarizes current knowledge on computational and experimental identification of glycosylation sites and glycan identity, together with methods used for their reengineering. Practical examples from previous studies focus on modification of glycosylations in thrombolytics, e.g., alteplase, tenecteplase, reteplase, urokinase, saruplase, and desmoteplase. Collected clinical data on these glycoproteins demonstrate the great potential of this engineering strategy. Outstanding combinatorics originating from multiple glycosylation sites and the vast variety of covalently attached glycan species can be addressed by directed evolution or rational design. Directed evolution pipelines would benefit from more efficient cell-free expression and high-throughput screening assays, while rational design must employ structure prediction by machine learning and in silico characterization by supercomputing. Perspectives on challenges and opportunities for improvement of thrombolytic enzymes by engineering and evolution of protein glycosylation are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Toul
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5/C13, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic; International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital, Pekarska 53, 656 91 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Veronika Slonkova
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5/C13, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic; International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital, Pekarska 53, 656 91 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Mican
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5/C13, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic; International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital, Pekarska 53, 656 91 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Adam Urminsky
- Research Centre for Applied Molecular Oncology, Masaryk Memorial Cancer Institute, Zluty kopec 7, 656 53 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Maria Tomkova
- Center for Interdisciplinary Biosciences, P. J. Safarik University in Kosice, Jesenna 5, 04154 Kosice, Slovakia
| | - Erik Sedlak
- Center for Interdisciplinary Biosciences, P. J. Safarik University in Kosice, Jesenna 5, 04154 Kosice, Slovakia
| | - David Bednar
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5/C13, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic; International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital, Pekarska 53, 656 91 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jiri Damborsky
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5/C13, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic; International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital, Pekarska 53, 656 91 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Lenka Hernychova
- Research Centre for Applied Molecular Oncology, Masaryk Memorial Cancer Institute, Zluty kopec 7, 656 53 Brno, Czech Republic.
| | - Zbynek Prokop
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5/C13, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic; International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital, Pekarska 53, 656 91 Brno, Czech Republic.
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Glinšek K, Bozovičar K, Bratkovič T. CRISPR Technologies in Chinese Hamster Ovary Cell Line Engineering. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24098144. [PMID: 37175850 PMCID: PMC10179654 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24098144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell line is a well-established platform for the production of biopharmaceuticals due to its ability to express complex therapeutic proteins with human-like glycopatterns in high amounts. The advent of CRISPR technology has opened up new avenues for the engineering of CHO cell lines for improved protein production and enhanced product quality. This review summarizes recent advances in the application of CRISPR technology for CHO cell line engineering with a particular focus on glycosylation modulation, productivity enhancement, tackling adventitious agents, elimination of problematic host cell proteins, development of antibiotic-free selection systems, site-specific transgene integration, and CRISPR-mediated gene activation and repression. The review highlights the potential of CRISPR technology in CHO cell line genome editing and epigenetic engineering for the more efficient and cost-effective development of biopharmaceuticals while ensuring the safety and quality of the final product.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katja Glinšek
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 7, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Krištof Bozovičar
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 7, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Tomaž Bratkovič
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 7, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Kalkan AK, Palaz F, Sofija S, Elmousa N, Ledezma Y, Cachat E, Rios-Solis L. Improving recombinant protein production in CHO cells using the CRISPR-Cas system. Biotechnol Adv 2023; 64:108115. [PMID: 36758652 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2023.108115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Revised: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2023]
Abstract
Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells are among the most widely used mammalian cell lines in the biopharmaceutical industry. Therefore, it is not surprising that significant efforts have been made around the engineering of CHO cells using genetic engineering methods such as the CRISPR-Cas system. In this review, we summarize key recent studies that have used different CRISPR-Cas systems such as Cas9, Cas13 or dCas9 fused with effector domains to improve recombinant protein (r-protein) production in CHO cells. Here, every relevant stage of production was considered, underscoring the advantages and limitations of these systems, as well as discussing their bottlenecks and probable solutions. A special emphasis was given on how these systems could disrupt and/or regulate genes related to glycan composition, which has relevant effects over r-protein properties and in vivo activity. Furthermore, the related promising future applications of CRISPR to achieve a tunable, reversible, or highly stable editing of CHO cells are discussed. Overall, the studies covered in this review show that despite the complexity of mammalian cells, the synthetic biology community has developed many mature strategies to improve r-protein production using CHO cells. In this regard, CRISPR-Cas technology clearly provides efficient and flexible genetic manipulation and allows for the generation of more productive CHO cell lines, leading to more cost-efficient production of biopharmaceuticals, however, there is still a need for many emerging techniques in CRISPR to be reported in CHO cells; therefore, more research in these cells is needed to realize the full potential of this technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Kerem Kalkan
- Department of Bioengineering and Imperial College Centre for Synthetic Biology, Imperial College London, London, UK; Environmental Engineering Department, Gebze Technical University, Turkey
| | - Fahreddin Palaz
- Faculty of Medicine, Hacettepe University, Ankara 06100, Turkey
| | - Semeniuk Sofija
- Centre for Engineering Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, UK; Institute of Quantitative Biology, Biochemistry and Biotechnology, School of Biological Sciences University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, UK
| | - Nada Elmousa
- Institute for Bioengineering, School of Engineering, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3DW, UK
| | - Yuri Ledezma
- Institute for Bioengineering, School of Engineering, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3DW, UK; Biology Department, Faculty of Pure and Natural Sciences, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, Bolivia
| | - Elise Cachat
- Centre for Engineering Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, UK; Institute of Quantitative Biology, Biochemistry and Biotechnology, School of Biological Sciences University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, UK; UK Centre for Mammalian Synthetic Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9YL, UK
| | - Leonardo Rios-Solis
- Centre for Engineering Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, UK; Institute for Bioengineering, School of Engineering, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3DW, UK; School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Molecular Biology and Biotechnology Division, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK.
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Amiri S, Adibzadeh S, Ghanbari S, Rahmani B, Kheirandish MH, Farokhi-Fard A, Dastjerdeh MS, Davami F. CRISPR-interceded CHO cell line development approaches. Biotechnol Bioeng 2023; 120:865-902. [PMID: 36597180 DOI: 10.1002/bit.28329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
For industrial production of recombinant protein biopharmaceuticals, Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells represent the most widely adopted host cell system, owing to their capacity to produce high-quality biologics with human-like posttranslational modifications. As opposed to random integration, targeted genome editing in genomic safe harbor sites has offered CHO cell line engineering a new perspective, ensuring production consistency in long-term culture and high biotherapeutic expression levels. Corresponding the remarkable advancements in knowledge of CRISPR-Cas systems, the use of CRISPR-Cas technology along with the donor design strategies has been pushed into increasing novel scenarios in cell line engineering, allowing scientists to modify mammalian genomes such as CHO cell line quickly, readily, and efficiently. Depending on the strategies and production requirements, the gene of interest can also be incorporated at single or multiple loci. This review will give a gist of all the most fundamental recent advancements in CHO cell line development, such as different cell line engineering approaches along with donor design strategies for targeted integration of the desired construct into genomic hot spots, which could ultimately lead to the fast-track product development process with consistent, improved product yield and quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahin Amiri
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Biotechnology Research Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Setare Adibzadeh
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Biotechnology Research Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Samaneh Ghanbari
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Biotechnology Research Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Behnaz Rahmani
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Biotechnology Research Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad H Kheirandish
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Biotechnology Research Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Aref Farokhi-Fard
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Biotechnology Research Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mansoureh S Dastjerdeh
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Biotechnology Research Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Davami
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Biotechnology Research Center, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
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Rahimi A, Karimipoor M, Mahdian R, Alipour A, Hosseini S, Mohammadi M, Kaghazian H, Abbasi A, Shahsavarani H, Shokrgozar MA. Efficient CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated BAX Gene Ablation in CHO Cells To Impair Apoptosis and Enhance Recombinant Protein Production. IRANIAN JOURNAL OF BIOTECHNOLOGY 2023; 21:e3388. [PMID: 37228627 PMCID: PMC10203183 DOI: 10.30498/ijb.2023.343428.3388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Background Despite recent advances in recombinant biotherapeutics production using CHO cells, their productivity remains lower than industrial needs, mainly due to apoptosis. Objectives Present study aimed to exploit CRISPR/Cas9 technology to specifically disrupt the BAX gene to attenuate apoptosis in recombinant Chinese hamster's ovary cells producing erythropoietin. Materials and Methods The STRING database was used to identify the key pro-apoptotic genes to be modified by CRISPR/Cas9 technique. The single guide RNAs (sgRNAs) targeting identified gene (BAX) were designed, and CHO cells were then transfected with vectors. Afterward, changes in the expression of the Bax gene and consequent production rates of erythropoietin were investigated in manipulated cells, even in the presence of an apoptosis inducer agent, oleuropein. Results BAX disruption significantly prolonged cell viability and increased proliferation rate in manipulated clones (152%, P-value = 0.0002). This strategy reduced the levels of Bax protein expression in manipulated cells by more than 4.3-fold (P-value <0.0001). The Bax-8 manipulated cells displayed higher threshold tolerance to the stress and consequence apoptosis compared to the control group. Also, they exhibited a higher IC50 compared to the control in the presence of oleuropein (5095 µM.ml-1 Vs. 2505 µM.ml-1). We found a significant increase in recombinant protein production levels in manipulated cells, even in the presence of 1,000 µM oleuropein compared to the control cell line (p-value=0.0002). Conclusions CRISPR/Cas9 assisted BAX gene ablation is promising to improve erythropoietin production in CHO cells via engineering anti-apoptotic genes. Therefore, exploiting genome editing tools such as CRISPR/Cas9 has been proposed to develop host cells that result in a safe, feasible, and robust manufacturing operation with a yield that meets the industrial requirements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amirabbas Rahimi
- Laboratory of regenerative medicine and biomedical innovations, National Cell Bank Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
- Molecular Medicine Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Reza Mahdian
- Molecular Medicine Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Atefeh Alipour
- Department of Nano-Biotechnology, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Saadi Hosseini
- Laboratory of regenerative medicine and biomedical innovations, National Cell Bank Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Marzieh Mohammadi
- Molecular Medicine Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hooman Kaghazian
- Department of Research & Development, Production & Research Complex, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Abdolrahim Abbasi
- Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| | - Hosein Shahsavarani
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Ali Shokrgozar
- Laboratory of regenerative medicine and biomedical innovations, National Cell Bank Department, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
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Chen Z, Zheng S, Fu C. Shotgun knockdown of RNA by CRISPR-Cas13d in fission yeast. J Cell Sci 2023; 136:297260. [PMID: 36825467 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.260769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The CRISPR-Cas13d system has a single small effector protein that targets RNA and does not require the presence of a protospacer flanking site in the targeted transcript. These features make CRISPR-Cas13d an attractive system for RNA manipulation. Here, we report the successful implementation of the CRISPR-Cas13d system in fission yeast for RNA knockdown. A high effectiveness of the CRISPR-Cas13d system was ensured by using an array of CRISPR RNAs (crRNAs) that are flanked by two self-cleaving ribozymes and are expressed from an RNA polymerase II promoter. Given the repressible nature of the promoter, RNA knockdown by the CRISPR-Cas13d system is reversible. Moreover, using the CRISPR-Cas13d system, we identified an effective crRNA array targeting the transcript of gfp and the effectiveness was demonstrated by successful knockdown of the transcripts of noc4-gfp, bub1-gfp and ade6-gfp. In principle, the effective GFP crRNA array allows knockdown of any transcript carrying the GFP sequences. This new CRISPR-Cas13d-based toolkit is expected to have a wide range of applications in many aspects of biology, including dissection of gene function and visualization of RNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhikai Chen
- MOE Key Laboratory for Cellular Dynamics & School of Life Sciences, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China
| | - Shengnan Zheng
- MOE Key Laboratory for Cellular Dynamics & School of Life Sciences, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China
| | - Chuanhai Fu
- MOE Key Laboratory for Cellular Dynamics & School of Life Sciences, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China
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Mao L, Schneider JW, Robinson AS. Progress toward rapid, at-line N-glycosylation detection and control for recombinant protein expression. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2022; 78:102788. [PMID: 36126382 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2022.102788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 08/06/2022] [Accepted: 08/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Proteins continue to represent a large fraction of the therapeutics market, reaching over a hundred billion dollars in market size globally. One key feature of protein modification that can affect both structure and function is the addition of glycosylation following protein folding, leading to regulatory requirements for the accurate assessment of protein attributes, including glycan structures. The non-template-driven, innately heterogeneous N-glycosylation process thus requires accurate detection to robustly generate protein therapies. A challenge exists in the timely detection of protein glycosylation without labor-intensive manipulation. In this article, we discuss progress toward N-glycoprotein control, focusing on novel control strategies and the advancement of rapid, high-throughput analysis methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leran Mao
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, 5000 Forbes Ave, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - James W Schneider
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, 5000 Forbes Ave, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Anne S Robinson
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, 5000 Forbes Ave, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
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Rahimi A, Karimipoor M, Mahdian R, Alipour A, Hosseini S, Kaghazian H, Abbasi A, Shahsavarani H, Shokrgozar MA. Targeting Caspase-3 Gene in rCHO Cell Line by CRISPR/Cas9 Editing Tool and Its Effect on Protein Production in Manipulated Cell Line. IRANIAN JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL RESEARCH : IJPR 2022; 21:e130236. [PMID: 36915405 PMCID: PMC10007989 DOI: 10.5812/ijpr-130236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2022] [Revised: 11/19/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
Abstract
Background Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells are the widely used mammalian cell host for biopharmaceutical manufacturing. During cell cultures, CHO cells lose viability mainly from apoptosis. Inhibiting cell death is useful because prolonging cell lifespans can direct to more productive cell culture systems for biotechnology requests. Objectives This study exploited a CRISPR/Cas9 technology to generate site-specific gene disruptions in the caspase-3 gene in the apoptosis pathway, which acts as an apoptotic regulator to extend cell viability in the CHO cell line. Methods The STRING database was used to identify the key pro-apoptotic genes to be modified by CRISPR/Cas9 system. The guide RNAs targeting the caspase-3 gene were designed, and vectors containing sgRNA and Cas9 were transfected into CHO cells that expressed erythropoietin as a heterologous protein. Indel formation was investigated by DNA sequencing. Caspase-3 expression was quantified by real-time PCR and western blot. The effect of editing the caspase-3 gene on the inhibition of apoptosis was also investigated by induction of apoptosis in manipulated cell lines by oleuropein. Finally, the erythropoietin production in the edited cells was compared to the control cells. Results The caspase-3 manipulation significantly prolongation of the cell viability and decreased the caspase-3 expression level of protein in manipulated CHO cells (more than 6-fold, P-value < 0.0001). Manipulated cells displayed higher threshold tolerance to apoptosis compared to the control cells when they were induced by oleuropein. They show a higher IC50 than the control ones (7271 µM/mL Vs. 5741 µM/mL). They also show a higher proliferation rate than the control cells in the presence of an apoptosis inducer (P-value < 0.0001). Furthermore, manipulated cell lines significantly produce more recombinant protein in the presence of 2,000 µM oleuropein compared to the control ones (P-value = 0.0021). Conclusions We understood that CRISPR/Cas9 could be effectively applied to suppress the expression of the caspase-3 gene and rescue CHO cells from apoptosis induced by cell stress and metabolites. The CRISPR/Cas9 system-assisted caspase-3 gene ablation can potentially increase erythropoietin yield in CHO cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amirabbas Rahimi
- Laboratory of Regenerative Medicine and Biomedical Innovations, Department of National Cell Bank, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Morteza Karimipoor
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Reza Mahdian
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Atefeh Alipour
- Department of Nano-Biotechnology, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sadi Hosseini
- Laboratory of Regenerative Medicine and Biomedical Innovations, Department of National Cell Bank, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hooman Kaghazian
- Department of Research & Development, Production & Research Complex, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Abdolrahim Abbasi
- Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Hosein Shahsavarani
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
- Corresponding Author: Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Mohammad Ali Shokrgozar
- Laboratory of Regenerative Medicine and Biomedical Innovations, Department of National Cell Bank, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
- Corresponding Author: Laboratory of Regenerative Medicine and Biomedical Innovations, Department of National Cell Bank, Pasteur Institute of Iran, 13169-43551, Tehran, Iran.
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Guo Y, Han L, Han S, Tang H, Wang S, Cui C, Chen B, Li H, Shu Y. Specific knockdown of Htra2 by CRISPR-CasRx prevents acquired sensorineural hearing loss in mice. MOLECULAR THERAPY. NUCLEIC ACIDS 2022; 28:643-655. [PMID: 35615000 PMCID: PMC9112053 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtn.2022.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
CasRx, a recently discovered member of the type VI CRISPR system with minimum size, offers a new approach for RNA manipulation with high efficiency and specificity in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. However, in vivo studies of functional recovery using the CasRx system have not been well characterized. Here, we sought to establish an adeno-associated virus (AAV)-CasRx-guide RNA (gRNA) system for the specific knockdown of Htra2 transcript to protect mice from aminoglycosides-induced hearing loss. For the study, we verified an optimized gRNA in vitro, which was packaged into a single AAV with CasRx, and injected the packaged AAV into mice with hearing loss induced by neomycin and auditory functions investigated by auditory brainstem response tests. Upon using the AAV-CasRx-gRNA system, we found the knockdown of Htra2 transcript led to less cochlear hair cell loss and improved auditory function, with low off-target and adverse side effects. Additionally, the decrease in Htra2 significantly inhibits mRNA expression of Casp3 and Casp9. In conclusion, the AAV-CasRx-gRNA-mediated knockdown of Htra2 transcript in mice has been proved effective and safe for preventing hearing loss induced by aminoglycosides and, thus, represents a promising genetic approach for the future clinical applications for treating non-inherited hearing loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Guo
- ENT Institute and Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Eye & ENT Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200031, China.,Institute of Biomedical Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Hearing Medicine (Fudan University), Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Lei Han
- ENT Institute and Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Eye & ENT Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200031, China.,Institute of Biomedical Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Hearing Medicine (Fudan University), Shanghai 200032, China.,Department of Otorhinolaryngology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, China
| | - Shuang Han
- ENT Institute and Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Eye & ENT Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200031, China.,Institute of Biomedical Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Hearing Medicine (Fudan University), Shanghai 200032, China.,Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130041, China
| | - Honghai Tang
- ENT Institute and Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Eye & ENT Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200031, China.,Institute of Biomedical Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Hearing Medicine (Fudan University), Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Shengyi Wang
- Institute of Biomedical Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Chong Cui
- ENT Institute and Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Eye & ENT Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200031, China.,Institute of Biomedical Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Hearing Medicine (Fudan University), Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Bing Chen
- ENT Institute and Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Eye & ENT Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200031, China.,Institute of Biomedical Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Hearing Medicine (Fudan University), Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Huawei Li
- ENT Institute and Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Eye & ENT Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200031, China.,Institute of Biomedical Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Hearing Medicine (Fudan University), Shanghai 200032, China.,The Institutes of Brain Science and the Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Yilai Shu
- ENT Institute and Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Eye & ENT Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200031, China.,Institute of Biomedical Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Hearing Medicine (Fudan University), Shanghai 200032, China
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12
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Glinšek K, Kramer L, Krajnc A, Kranjc E, Pirher N, Marušič J, Hellmann L, Podobnik B, Štrukelj B, Ausländer D, Gaber R. Coupling CRISPR interference with FACS enrichment: New approach in glycoengineering of CHO cell lines for therapeutic glycoprotein production. Biotechnol J 2022; 17:e2100499. [PMID: 35481906 DOI: 10.1002/biot.202100499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Revised: 04/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Difficulties in obtaining and maintaining the desired level of the critical quality attributes (CQAs) of therapeutic proteins as well as the pace of the development are major challenges of current biopharmaceutical development. Therapeutic proteins, both innovative and biosimilars, are mostly glycosylated. Glycans directly influence the stability, potency, plasma half-life, immunogenicity, and effector functions of the therapeutic. Hence, glycosylation is widely recognized as a process-dependent CQA of therapeutic glycoproteins. Due to the typically high heterogeneity of glycoforms attached to the proteins, control of glycosylation represents one of the most challenging aspects of biopharmaceutical development. Here, we explored a new glycoengineering approach in therapeutic glycoproteins development, which enabled us to achieve the targeted glycoprofile of the Fc-fusion protein in a fast manner. Coupling CRISPRi technology with lectin-FACS sorting enabled downregulation of the endogenous gene involved in fucosylation and further enrichment of CHO cells producing Fc-fusion proteins with reduced fucosylation levels. Enrichment of cells with targeted glycoprofile can lead to time-optimized clone screening and speed up cell line development. Moreover, the presented approach allows isolation of clones with varying levels of fucosylation, which makes it applicable to a broad range of glycoproteins differing in target fucosylation level. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katja Glinšek
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 7, Ljubljana, SI-1000, Slovenia
| | - Lovro Kramer
- Novartis Technical Research & Development, Biologics Technical Development, Lek Pharmaceuticals d.d., Kolodvorska 27, Mengeš, SI-1234, Slovenia
| | - Aleksander Krajnc
- Novartis Technical Research & Development, Biologics Technical Development, Lek Pharmaceuticals d.d., Kolodvorska 27, Mengeš, SI-1234, Slovenia
| | - Eva Kranjc
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 7, Ljubljana, SI-1000, Slovenia
| | - Nina Pirher
- Novartis Technical Research & Development, Biologics Technical Development, Lek Pharmaceuticals d.d., Kolodvorska 27, Mengeš, SI-1234, Slovenia
| | - Jaka Marušič
- Novartis Technical Research & Development, Biologics Technical Development, Lek Pharmaceuticals d.d., Kolodvorska 27, Mengeš, SI-1234, Slovenia
| | - Leon Hellmann
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Klybeckstrasse 141, Basel, CH-4057, Switzerland
| | - Barbara Podobnik
- Novartis Technical Research & Development, Biologics Technical Development, Lek Pharmaceuticals d.d., Kolodvorska 27, Mengeš, SI-1234, Slovenia
| | - Borut Štrukelj
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 7, Ljubljana, SI-1000, Slovenia
| | - David Ausländer
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Klybeckstrasse 141, Basel, CH-4057, Switzerland
| | - Rok Gaber
- Novartis Technical Research & Development, Biologics Technical Development, Lek Pharmaceuticals d.d., Kolodvorska 27, Mengeš, SI-1234, Slovenia
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Gupta R, Ghosh A, Chakravarti R, Singh R, Ravichandiran V, Swarnakar S, Ghosh D. Cas13d: A New Molecular Scissor for Transcriptome Engineering. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:866800. [PMID: 35433685 PMCID: PMC9008242 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.866800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The discovery of Clustered Regularly Interspaced Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) and its associated Cas endonucleases in bacterial and archaeal species allowed scientists to modify, utilized, and revolutionize this tool for genetic alterations in any species. Especially the type II CRISPR-Cas9 system has been extensively studied and utilized for precise and efficient DNA manipulation in plant and mammalian systems over the past few decades. Further, the discovery of the type V CRISPR-Cas12 (Cpf1) system provides more flexibility and precision in DNA manipulation in prokaryotes, plants, and animals. However, much effort has been made to employ and utilize the above CRISPR tools for RNA manipulation but the ability of Cas9 and Cas12 to cut DNA involves the nuisance of off-target effects on genes and thus may not be employed in all RNA-targeting applications. Therefore, the search for new and diverse Cas effectors which can precisely detect and manipulate the targeted RNA begins and this led to the discovery of a novel RNA targeting class 2, type VI CRISPR-Cas13 system. The CRISPR-Cas13 system consists of single RNA-guided Cas13 effector nucleases that solely target single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) in a programmable way without altering the DNA. The Cas13 effectors family comprises four subtypes (a-d) and each subtype has distinctive primary sequence divergence except the two consensuses Higher eukaryotes and prokaryotes nucleotide-binding domain (HEPN) that includes RNase motifs i.e. R-X4-6-H. These two HEPN domains are solely responsible for executing targetable RNA cleavage activity with high efficiency. Further, recent studies have shown that Cas13d exhibits higher efficiency and specificity in cleaving targeted RNA in the mammalian system compared to other Cas13 endonucleases of the Cas13 enzyme family. In addition to that, Cas13d has shown additional advantages over other Cas13 variants, structurally as well as functionally which makes it a prominent and superlative tool for RNA engineering and editing. Therefore considering the advantages of Cas13d over previously characterized Cas13 subtypes, in this review, we encompass the structural and mechanistic properties of type VI CRISPR-Cas13d systems, an overview of the current reported various applications of Cas13d, and the prospects to improve Cas13d based tools for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahul Gupta
- Infectious Diseases and Immunology Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, India
| | - Arijit Ghosh
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Kolkata, India
| | - Rudra Chakravarti
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Kolkata, India
| | - Rajveer Singh
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Kolkata, India
| | - Velayutham Ravichandiran
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Kolkata, India
- *Correspondence: Dipanjan Ghosh, ; Snehasikta Swarnakar, ; Velayutham Ravichandiran,
| | - Snehasikta Swarnakar
- Infectious Diseases and Immunology Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, India
- *Correspondence: Dipanjan Ghosh, ; Snehasikta Swarnakar, ; Velayutham Ravichandiran,
| | - Dipanjan Ghosh
- National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Kolkata, India
- *Correspondence: Dipanjan Ghosh, ; Snehasikta Swarnakar, ; Velayutham Ravichandiran,
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14
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Marx N, Eisenhut P, Weinguny M, Klanert G, Borth N. How to train your cell - Towards controlling phenotypes by harnessing the epigenome of Chinese hamster ovary production cell lines. Biotechnol Adv 2022; 56:107924. [PMID: 35149147 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2022.107924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2021] [Revised: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances in omics technologies and the broad availability of big datasets have revolutionized our understanding of Chinese hamster ovary cells in their role as the most prevalent host for production of complex biopharmaceuticals. In consequence, our perception of this "workhorse of the biopharmaceutical industry" has successively shifted from that of a nicely working, but unknown recombinant protein producing black box to a biological system governed by multiple complex regulatory layers that might possibly be harnessed and manipulated at will. Despite the tremendous progress that has been made to characterize CHO cells on various omics levels, our understanding is still far from complete. The well-known inherent genetic plasticity of any immortalized and rapidly dividing cell line also characterizes CHO cells and can lead to problematic instability of recombinant protein production. While the high mutational frequency has been a focus of CHO cell research for decades, the impact of epigenetics and its role in differential gene expression has only recently been addressed. In this review we provide an overview about the current understanding of epigenetic regulation in CHO cells and discuss its significance for shaping the cell's phenotype. We also look into current state-of-the-art technology that can be applied to harness and manipulate the epigenetic network so as to nudge CHO cells towards a specific phenotype. Here, we revise current strategies on site-directed integration and random as well as targeted epigenome modifications. Finally, we address open questions that need to be investigated to exploit the full repertoire of fine-tuned control of multiplexed gene expression using epigenetic and systems biology tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Marx
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Peter Eisenhut
- Austrian Centre for Industrial Biotechnology GmbH, Vienna, Austria
| | - Marcus Weinguny
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria; Austrian Centre for Industrial Biotechnology GmbH, Vienna, Austria
| | - Gerald Klanert
- Austrian Centre for Industrial Biotechnology GmbH, Vienna, Austria
| | - Nicole Borth
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria; Austrian Centre for Industrial Biotechnology GmbH, Vienna, Austria.
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15
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Palaz F, Kalkan AK, Can Ö, Demir AN, Tozluyurt A, Özcan A, Ozsoz M. CRISPR-Cas13 System as a Promising and Versatile Tool for Cancer Diagnosis, Therapy, and Research. ACS Synth Biol 2021; 10:1245-1267. [PMID: 34037380 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.1c00107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Over the past decades, significant progress has been made in targeted cancer therapy. In precision oncology, molecular profiling of cancer patients enables the use of targeted cancer therapeutics. However, current diagnostic methods for molecular analysis of cancer are costly and require sophisticated equipment. Moreover, targeted cancer therapeutics such as monoclonal antibodies and small-molecule drugs may cause off-target effects and they are available for only a minority of cancer driver proteins. Therefore, there is still a need for versatile, efficient, and precise tools for cancer diagnostics and targeted cancer treatment. In recent years, the CRISPR-based genome and transcriptome engineering toolbox has expanded rapidly. Particularly, the RNA-targeting CRISPR-Cas13 system has unique biochemical properties, making Cas13 a promising tool for cancer diagnosis, therapy, and research. Cas13-based diagnostic methods allow early detection and monitoring of cancer markers from liquid biopsy samples without the need for complex instrumentation. In addition, Cas13 can be used for targeted cancer therapy through degrading and manipulating cancer-associated transcripts with high efficiency and specificity. Moreover, Cas13-mediated programmable RNA manipulation tools offer invaluable opportunities for cancer research, identification of drug-resistance mechanisms, and discovery of novel therapeutic targets. Here, we review and discuss the current use and potential applications of the CRISPR-Cas13 system in cancer diagnosis, therapy, and research. Thus, researchers will gain a deep understanding of CRISPR-Cas13 technologies, which have the potential to be used as next-generation cancer diagnostics and therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fahreddin Palaz
- Faculty of Medicine, Hacettepe University, Ankara 06100, Turkey
| | | | - Özgür Can
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Koc University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey
| | - Ayça Nur Demir
- Faculty of Medicine, Afyonkarahisar Health Sciences University, Afyonkarahisar 03100, Turkey
| | - Abdullah Tozluyurt
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Hacettepe University, Ankara 06100, Turkey
| | - Ahsen Özcan
- Institute of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, TUBITAK Marmara Research Center, Kocaeli 41470, Turkey
| | - Mehmet Ozsoz
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Near East University, 10 Mersin, Nicosia, Turkey
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