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Li Y, Deng D, Höfer CT, Kim J, Do Heo W, Xu Q, Liu X, Zi Z. Liebig's law of the minimum in the TGF-β/SMAD pathway. PLoS Comput Biol 2024; 20:e1012072. [PMID: 38753874 PMCID: PMC11135686 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1012072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2024] [Revised: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Cells use signaling pathways to sense and respond to their environments. The transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) pathway produces context-specific responses. Here, we combined modeling and experimental analysis to study the dependence of the output of the TGF-β pathway on the abundance of signaling molecules in the pathway. We showed that the TGF-β pathway processes the variation of TGF-β receptor abundance using Liebig's law of the minimum, meaning that the output-modifying factor is the signaling protein that is most limited, to determine signaling responses across cell types and in single cells. We found that the abundance of either the type I (TGFBR1) or type II (TGFBR2) TGF-β receptor determined the responses of cancer cell lines, such that the receptor with relatively low abundance dictates the response. Furthermore, nuclear SMAD2 signaling correlated with the abundance of TGF-β receptor in single cells depending on the relative expression levels of TGFBR1 and TGFBR2. A similar control principle could govern the heterogeneity of signaling responses in other signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuchao Li
- Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Otto Warburg Laboratory, Berlin, Germany
| | - Difan Deng
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department of Experimental Toxicology and ZEBET, Berlin, Germany
| | - Chris Tina Höfer
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department of Experimental Toxicology and ZEBET, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jihye Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, KAIST Institute for the BioCentury, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Won Do Heo
- Department of Biological Sciences, KAIST Institute for the BioCentury, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Quanbin Xu
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Xuedong Liu
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Zhike Zi
- Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Otto Warburg Laboratory, Berlin, Germany
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department of Experimental Toxicology and ZEBET, Berlin, Germany
- Key Laboratory of Quantitative Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China
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2
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McNamara HM, Jia BZ, Guyer A, Parot VJ, Dobbs C, Schier AF, Cohen AE, Lord ND. Optogenetic control of Nodal signaling patterns. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.11.588875. [PMID: 38645239 PMCID: PMC11030342 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.11.588875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/23/2024]
Abstract
A crucial step in early embryogenesis is the establishment of spatial patterns of signaling activity. Tools to perturb morphogen signals with high resolution in space and time can help reveal how embryonic cells decode these signals to make appropriate fate decisions. Here, we present new optogenetic reagents and an experimental pipeline for creaHng designer Nodal signaling patterns in live zebrafish embryos. Nodal receptors were fused to the light-sensitive heterodimerizing pair Cry2/CIB1N, and the Type II receptor was sequestered to the cytosol. The improved optoNodal2 reagents eliminate dark activity and improve response kinetics, without sacrificing dynamic range. We adapted an ultra-widefield microscopy platform for parallel light patterning in up to 36 embryos and demonstrated precise spatial control over Nodal signaling activity and downstream gene expression. Patterned Nodal activation drove precisely controlled internalization of endodermal precursors. Further, we used patterned illumination to generate synthetic signaling patterns in Nodal signaling mutants, rescuing several characteristic developmental defects. This study establishes an experimental toolkit for systematic exploration of Nodal signaling patterns in live embryos.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Bill Z. Jia
- Department of Systems Biology, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Alison Guyer
- Department of Computational and Systems Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Vicente J. Parot
- Institute for Biological and Medical Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Caleb Dobbs
- Department of Computational and Systems Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | | | - Adam E. Cohen
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Nathan D. Lord
- Department of Computational and Systems Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- McGowan Institute of Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, USA
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3
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Wu JY, Yeager K, Tavakol DN, Morsink M, Wang B, Soni RK, Hung CT, Vunjak-Novakovic G. Directed differentiation of human iPSCs into mesenchymal lineages by optogenetic control of TGF-β signaling. Cell Rep 2023; 42:112509. [PMID: 37178118 PMCID: PMC10278972 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.112509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Revised: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
In tissue development and homeostasis, transforming growth factor (TGF)-β signaling is finely coordinated by latent forms and matrix sequestration. Optogenetics can offer precise and dynamic control of cell signaling. We report the development of an optogenetic human induced pluripotent stem cell system for TGF-β signaling and demonstrate its utility in directing differentiation into the smooth muscle, tenogenic, and chondrogenic lineages. Light-activated TGF-β signaling resulted in expression of differentiation markers at levels close to those in soluble factor-treated cultures, with minimal phototoxicity. In a cartilage-bone model, light-patterned TGF-β gradients allowed the establishment of hyaline-like layer of cartilage tissue at the articular surface while attenuating with depth to enable hypertrophic induction at the osteochondral interface. By selectively activating TGF-β signaling in co-cultures of light-responsive and non-responsive cells, undifferentiated and differentiated cells were simultaneously maintained in a single culture with shared medium. This platform can enable patient-specific and spatiotemporally precise studies of cellular decision making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josephine Y Wu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Keith Yeager
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | | | - Margaretha Morsink
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Bryan Wang
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Rajesh Kumar Soni
- Proteomics and Macromolecular Crystallography Shared Resource, Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Clark T Hung
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Gordana Vunjak-Novakovic
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Medicine, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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4
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Sarma U, Ripka L, Anyaegbunam UA, Legewie S. Modeling Cellular Signaling Variability Based on Single-Cell Data: The TGFβ-SMAD Signaling Pathway. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2634:215-251. [PMID: 37074581 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3008-2_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/20/2023]
Abstract
Nongenetic heterogeneity is key to cellular decisions, as even genetically identical cells respond in very different ways to the same external stimulus, e.g., during cell differentiation or therapeutic treatment of disease. Strong heterogeneity is typically already observed at the level of signaling pathways that are the first sensors of external inputs and transmit information to the nucleus where decisions are made. Since heterogeneity arises from random fluctuations of cellular components, mathematical models are required to fully describe the phenomenon and to understand the dynamics of heterogeneous cell populations. Here, we review the experimental and theoretical literature on cellular signaling heterogeneity, with special focus on the TGFβ/SMAD signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uddipan Sarma
- Institute of Molecular Biology (IMB), Mainz, Germany
| | - Lorenz Ripka
- Institute of Molecular Biology (IMB), Mainz, Germany
- Department of Systems Biology, Institute for Biomedical Genetics, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Uchenna Alex Anyaegbunam
- Institute of Molecular Biology (IMB), Mainz, Germany
- Department of Systems Biology, Institute for Biomedical Genetics, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Stefan Legewie
- Institute of Molecular Biology (IMB), Mainz, Germany.
- Department of Systems Biology, Institute for Biomedical Genetics, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany.
- Stuttgart Research Center for Systems Biology, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany.
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5
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Ferreira MJS, Mancini FE, Humphreys PA, Ogene L, Buckley M, Domingos MAN, Kimber SJ. Pluripotent stem cells for skeletal tissue engineering. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2022; 42:774-793. [PMID: 34488516 DOI: 10.1080/07388551.2021.1968785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Here, we review the use of human pluripotent stem cells for skeletal tissue engineering. A number of approaches have been used for generating cartilage and bone from both human embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells. These range from protocols relying on intrinsic cell interactions and signals from co-cultured cells to those attempting to recapitulate the series of steps occurring during mammalian skeletal development. The importance of generating authentic tissues rather than just differentiated cells is emphasized and enabling technologies for doing this are reported. We also review the different methods for characterization of skeletal cells and constructs at the tissue and single-cell level, and indicate newer resources not yet fully utilized in this field. There have been many challenges in this research area but the technologies to overcome these are beginning to appear, often adopted from related fields. This makes it more likely that cost-effective and efficacious human pluripotent stem cell-engineered constructs may become available for skeletal repair in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel J S Ferreira
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering & Henry Royce Institute, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Fabrizio E Mancini
- Division of Cell Matrix Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Paul A Humphreys
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering & Henry Royce Institute, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
- Division of Cell Matrix Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Leona Ogene
- Division of Cell Matrix Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Michael Buckley
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Marco A N Domingos
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering & Henry Royce Institute, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Susan J Kimber
- Division of Cell Matrix Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
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Roles and mechanisms of ankyrin-G in neuropsychiatric disorders. Exp Mol Med 2022; 54:867-877. [PMID: 35794211 PMCID: PMC9356056 DOI: 10.1038/s12276-022-00798-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2022] [Revised: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Ankyrin proteins act as molecular scaffolds and play an essential role in regulating cellular functions. Recent evidence has implicated the ANK3 gene, encoding ankyrin-G, in bipolar disorder (BD), schizophrenia (SZ), and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Within neurons, ankyrin-G plays an important role in localizing proteins to the axon initial segment and nodes of Ranvier or to the dendritic shaft and spines. In this review, we describe the expression patterns of ankyrin-G isoforms, which vary according to the stage of brain development, and consider their functional differences. Furthermore, we discuss how posttranslational modifications of ankyrin-G affect its protein expression, interactions, and subcellular localization. Understanding these mechanisms leads us to elucidate potential pathways of pathogenesis in neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders, including BD, SZ, and ASD, which are caused by rare pathogenic mutations or changes in the expression levels of ankyrin-G in the brain. Mutations affecting the production, distribution, or function of the ankyrin-G protein may contribute to a variety of different neuropsychiatric disorders. Ankyrin-G is typically observed at the synapses between neurons, and contributes to intercellular adhesion and signaling along with other important functions. Peter Penzes and colleagues at Northwestern University, Chicago, USA, review the biology of this protein and identify potential mechanisms by which ankyrin-G mutations might impair healthy brain development. Mutations in the gene encoding this protein are strongly linked with bipolar disorder, but have also been tentatively connected to autism spectrum disorders and schizophrenia. The authors highlight physiologically important interactions with a diverse array of other brain proteins, which can in turn be modulated by various chemical modifications to ankyrin-G, and conclude that drugs that influence these modifications could have potential therapeutic value.
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7
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Kolbe N, Hexemer L, Bammert LM, Loewer A, Lukáčová-Medvid’ová M, Legewie S. Data-based stochastic modeling reveals sources of activity bursts in single-cell TGF-β signaling. PLoS Comput Biol 2022; 18:e1010266. [PMID: 35759468 PMCID: PMC9269928 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Cells sense their surrounding by employing intracellular signaling pathways that transmit hormonal signals from the cell membrane to the nucleus. TGF-β/SMAD signaling encodes various cell fates, controls tissue homeostasis and is deregulated in diseases such as cancer. The pathway shows strong heterogeneity at the single-cell level, but quantitative insights into mechanisms underlying fluctuations at various time scales are still missing, partly due to inefficiency in the calibration of stochastic models that mechanistically describe signaling processes. In this work we analyze single-cell TGF-β/SMAD signaling and show that it exhibits temporal stochastic bursts which are dose-dependent and whose number and magnitude correlate with cell migration. We propose a stochastic modeling approach to mechanistically describe these pathway fluctuations with high computational efficiency. Employing high-order numerical integration and fitting to burst statistics we enable efficient quantitative parameter estimation and discriminate models that assume noise in different reactions at the receptor level. This modeling approach suggests that stochasticity in the internalization of TGF-β receptors into endosomes plays a key role in the observed temporal bursting. Further, the model predicts the single-cell dynamics of TGF-β/SMAD signaling in untested conditions, e.g., successfully reflects memory effects of signaling noise and cellular sensitivity towards repeated stimulation. Taken together, our computational framework based on burst analysis, noise modeling and path computation scheme is a suitable tool for the data-based modeling of complex signaling pathways, capable of identifying the source of temporal noise. Fluctuations in molecular networks give rise to heterogeneity in cellular behavior and therefore promote the diversification of tissues. For a better understanding of cellular decision making, it is important to identify sources of molecular fluctuations and to quantitatively describe them by predictive mathematical models. In this work, we focused on temporal fluctuations of the TGF-β signaling pathway that is important for controlling cell division and migration. We characterized a single-cell dataset comprising hundreds of cells using time series analysis and a large-scale stochastic model. By fitting several model variants to the data, we identified the stochastic internalization of cell surface receptors into endosomes as a main source of temporal fluctuations (’bursts’) in the signaling pathway. The corresponding model accurately predicted novel experimental data, and provided insights into the long-term memory of signaling fluctuations. In summary, we propose a modeling approach to quantitatively describe heterogeneous behavior in large-scale single-cell datasets and to identify the underlying biological mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niklas Kolbe
- Institute of Geometry and Practical Mathematics, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
- * E-mail: (NK); (SL)
| | - Lorenz Hexemer
- Institute of Molecular Biology (IMB), Mainz, Germany
- Department of Systems Biology, Institute for Biomedical Genetics (IBMG), University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | | | - Alexander Loewer
- Systems Biology of the Stress Response, Department of Biology, Technical University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
| | | | - Stefan Legewie
- Department of Systems Biology, Institute for Biomedical Genetics (IBMG), University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
- Stuttgart Research Center for Systems Biology (SRCSB), University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
- * E-mail: (NK); (SL)
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8
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Crossman SH, Janovjak H. Light-activated receptor tyrosine kinases: Designs and applications. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2022; 63:102197. [PMID: 35245796 DOI: 10.1016/j.coph.2022.102197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2021] [Revised: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are a large and essential membrane receptor family. The molecular mechanisms and physiological consequences of RTK activation depend on, for example, ligand identity, subcellular localization, and developmental or disease stage. In the past few years, genetically-encoded light-activated RTKs (Opto-RTKs) have been developed to dissect these complexities by providing reversible and spatio-temporal control over cell signaling. These methods have very recently matured to include highly-sensitive multi-color actuators. The new ability to regulate RTK activity with high precision has been recently harnessed to gain mechanistic insights in subcellular, tissue, and animal models. Because of their sophisticated engineering, Opto-RTKs may only mirror some aspects of natural activation mechanisms but nevertheless offer unique opportunities to study RTK signaling and physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel H Crossman
- Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute (ARMI), Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, 15 Innovation Walk, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia; European Molecular Biology Laboratory Australia (EMBL Australia), Monash University, 15 Innovation Walk, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Harald Janovjak
- Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute (ARMI), Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, 15 Innovation Walk, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia; European Molecular Biology Laboratory Australia (EMBL Australia), Monash University, 15 Innovation Walk, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia; Flinders Health and Medical Research Institute, College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Sturt Road, Bedford Park, South Australia 5042, Australia.
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9
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Zhu D, Johnson HJ, Chen J, Schaffer DV. Optogenetic Application to Investigating Cell Behavior and Neurological Disease. Front Cell Neurosci 2022; 16:811493. [PMID: 35273478 PMCID: PMC8902366 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2022.811493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cells reside in a dynamic microenvironment that presents them with regulatory signals that vary in time, space, and amplitude. The cell, in turn, interprets these signals and accordingly initiates downstream processes including cell proliferation, differentiation, migration, and self-organization. Conventional approaches to perturb and investigate signaling pathways (e.g., agonist/antagonist addition, overexpression, silencing, knockouts) are often binary perturbations that do not offer precise control over signaling levels, and/or provide limited spatial or temporal control. In contrast, optogenetics leverages light-sensitive proteins to control cellular signaling dynamics and target gene expression and, by virtue of precise hardware control over illumination, offers the capacity to interrogate how spatiotemporally varying signals modulate gene regulatory networks and cellular behaviors. Recent studies have employed various optogenetic systems in stem cell, embryonic, and somatic cell patterning studies, which have addressed fundamental questions of how cell-cell communication, subcellular protein localization, and signal integration affect cell fate. Other efforts have explored how alteration of signaling dynamics may contribute to neurological diseases and have in the process created physiologically relevant models that could inform new therapeutic strategies. In this review, we focus on emerging applications within the expanding field of optogenetics to study gene regulation, cell signaling, neurodevelopment, and neurological disorders, and we comment on current limitations and future directions for the growth of the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danqing Zhu
- California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Hunter J. Johnson
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States
- Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
- Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Jun Chen
- California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - David V. Schaffer
- California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States
- Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States
- *Correspondence: David V. Schaffer
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Li Y, Zi Z. Optogenetic Control of TGF-β Signaling. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2488:113-124. [PMID: 35347686 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2277-3_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Cells employ signaling pathways to make decisions in response to changes in their immediate environment. The Transforming Growth Factor β (TGF-β) signaling pathway plays pivotal roles in regulating many cellular processes, including cell proliferation, differentiation, and migrations. In order to manipulate and explore the dynamic behavior of TGF-β signaling at high spatiotemporal resolution, we developed an optogenetic system (the optoTGFBRs system), in which light is used to control TGF-β signaling precisely in time and space. Here, we describe about experimental details of how to build the optoTGFBRs system and utilize it to manipulate TGF-β signaling in a single cell or a cell population using microscope or LED array, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuchao Li
- Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Otto Warburg Laboratory, Berlin, Germany
| | - Zhike Zi
- Department of Experimental Toxicology and ZEBET, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany.
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11
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Li Y, Lee H, Heo WD, Zi Z. Revisiting the Role of TGFβ Receptor Internalization for Smad Signaling: It is Not Required in Optogenetic TGFβ Signaling Systems. Adv Biol (Weinh) 2021; 5:e2101008. [PMID: 34463435 DOI: 10.1002/adbi.202101008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2021] [Revised: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Endocytosis is an important process by which many signaling receptors reach their intracellular effectors. Accumulating evidence suggests that internalized receptors play critical roles in triggering cellular signaling, including transforming growth factor β (TGFβ) signaling. Despite intensive studies on the TGFβ pathway over the last decades, the necessity of TGFβ receptor endocytosis for downstream TGFβ signaling responses is a subject of debate. In this study, mathematical modeling and synthetic biology approaches are combined to re-evaluate whether TGFβ receptor internalization is indispensable for inducing Smad signaling. It is found that optogenetic systems with plasma membrane-tethered TGFβ receptors can induce fast and sustained Smad2 activation upon light stimulations. Modeling analysis suggests that endocytosis is precluded for the membrane-anchored optogenetic TGFβ receptors. Therefore, this study provides new evidence to support that TGFβ receptor internalization is not required for Smad2 activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuchao Li
- Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Otto Warburg Laboratory, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Heeyoung Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 305701, Republic of Korea
| | - Won Do Heo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 305701, Republic of Korea.,KAIST Institute for the BioCentury, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 305701, Republic of Korea
| | - Zhike Zi
- Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Otto Warburg Laboratory, 14195, Berlin, Germany.,German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department of Experimental Toxicology and ZEBET, 10589, Berlin, Germany
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12
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Keshmiri Neghab H, Soheilifar MH, Grusch M, Ortega MM, Esmaeeli Djavid G, Saboury AA, Goliaei B. The state of the art of biomedical applications of optogenetics. Lasers Surg Med 2021; 54:202-216. [PMID: 34363230 DOI: 10.1002/lsm.23463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE Optogenetics has opened new insights into biomedical research with the ability to manipulate and control cellular activity using light in combination with genetically engineered photosensitive proteins. By stimulating with light, this method provides high spatiotemporal and high specificity resolution, which is in contrast to conventional pharmacological or electrical stimulation. Optogenetics was initially introduced to control neural activities but was gradually extended to other biomedical fields. STUDY DESIGN In this paper, firstly, we summarize the current optogenetic tools stimulated by different light sources, including lasers, light-emitting diodes, and laser diodes. Second, we outline the variety of biomedical applications of optogenetics not only for neuronal circuits but also for various kinds of cells and tissues from cardiomyocytes to ganglion cells. Furthermore, we highlight the potential of this technique for treating neurological disorders, cardiac arrhythmia, visual impairment, hearing loss, and urinary bladder diseases as well as clarify the mechanisms underlying cancer progression and control of stem cell differentiation. CONCLUSION We sought to summarize the various types of promising applications of optogenetics to treat a broad spectrum of disorders. It is conceivable to expect that optogenetics profits a growing number of patients suffering from a range of different diseases in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hoda Keshmiri Neghab
- Department of Photo Healing and Regeneration, Medical Laser Research Center, Yara Institute, ACECR, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Michael Grusch
- Department of Medicine I, Institute of Cancer Research, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Manoela Marques Ortega
- Laboratory of Cell and Molecular Tumor Biology and Bioactive Compounds, São Francisco University, Bragança Paulista, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Gholamreza Esmaeeli Djavid
- Department of Photo Healing and Regeneration, Medical Laser Research Center, Yara Institute, ACECR, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Akbar Saboury
- Department of Biophysics, Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Bahram Goliaei
- Department of Biophysics, Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
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13
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Guo J, Lu G, Chen L, Geng H, Wu X, Chen H, Li Y, Yuan M, Sun J, Pei L. Regulation of serum microRNA expression by acupuncture in patients with diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome. Acupunct Med 2021; 40:34-42. [PMID: 34231397 DOI: 10.1177/09645284211027892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To screen for differentially expressed serum microRNAs (miRNAs) in patients with diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome (IBS-D) compared with healthy participants and explore the mechanism of acupuncture in the treatment of IBS-D based on miRNAs. METHODS IBS-D patients that met the Rome III diagnostic criteria and age- and sex-matched healthy participants were enrolled between April 2017 and December 2017. Serum miRNA levels were initially determined using a TaqMan low-density array (TLDA) in pooled samples. Markedly altered miRNAs in IBS-D patients were subsequently validated using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) on individual samples. All IBS-D patients accepted the acupuncture therapy for 6 weeks. The disease severity was assessed using the IBS symptom severity scale (IBS-SSS) questionnaire before and after treatment. After acupuncture, the patients' serum was re-analyzed for altered expression of the miRNAs by qRT-PCR. RESULTS TLDA and qRT-PCR analysis revealed six upregulated miRNAs (miR-1305, miR-575, miR-149-5p, miR-190a-5p, miR-135a-5p, and miR-148a-3p; P < 0.05) and two downregulated miRNAs (miR-194-5p, miR-127-5p; P < 0.05) in IBS-D patients compared with healthy controls. Post acupuncture treatment, total IBS-SSS scores, severity of abdominal pain, duration of abdominal pain, severity of abdominal distention, dissatisfaction with bowel habits and disruption in quality of life decreased significantly (P < 0.001). Furthermore, the upregulated miR-148a-3p levels in IBS-D patients also decreased significantly after acupuncture (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS The over-expression or reduced expression of several miRNAs may contribute to IBS-D pathogenesis. Acupuncture might downregulate miR-148a-3p through multiple pathways to alleviate or relieve IBS-D symptoms. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER ChiCTR-IOR-17010860 (Chinese Clinical Trials Registry).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Guo
- School of First Clinical Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Gao Lu
- School of Second Clinical Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Lu Chen
- Department of Acupuncture and Rehabilitation, Jiangsu Province Hospital of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Hao Geng
- Department of Acupuncture and Rehabilitation, Jiangsu Province Hospital of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Xiaoliang Wu
- Department of Acupuncture and Rehabilitation, Jiangsu Province Hospital of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Hao Chen
- School of Second Clinical Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Yang Li
- Gastroenterology Endoscopy Center, Jiangsu Province Hospital of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Mengqian Yuan
- Department of Acupuncture and Rehabilitation, Jiangsu Province Hospital of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Jianhua Sun
- Department of Acupuncture and Rehabilitation, Jiangsu Province Hospital of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Lixia Pei
- Department of Acupuncture and Rehabilitation, Jiangsu Province Hospital of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
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14
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Kramer MM, Lataster L, Weber W, Radziwill G. Optogenetic Approaches for the Spatiotemporal Control of Signal Transduction Pathways. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:5300. [PMID: 34069904 PMCID: PMC8157557 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22105300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Biological signals are sensed by their respective receptors and are transduced and processed by a sophisticated intracellular signaling network leading to a signal-specific cellular response. Thereby, the response to the signal depends on the strength, the frequency, and the duration of the stimulus as well as on the subcellular signal progression. Optogenetic tools are based on genetically encoded light-sensing proteins facilitating the precise spatiotemporal control of signal transduction pathways and cell fate decisions in the absence of natural ligands. In this review, we provide an overview of optogenetic approaches connecting light-regulated protein-protein interaction or caging/uncaging events with steering the function of signaling proteins. We briefly discuss the most common optogenetic switches and their mode of action. The main part deals with the engineering and application of optogenetic tools for the control of transmembrane receptors including receptor tyrosine kinases, the T cell receptor and integrins, and their effector proteins. We also address the hallmarks of optogenetics, the spatial and temporal control of signaling events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus M. Kramer
- Faculty of Biology and Signalling Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany; (M.M.K.); (L.L.); (W.W.)
- SGBM—Spemann Graduate School of Biology and Medicine, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Levin Lataster
- Faculty of Biology and Signalling Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany; (M.M.K.); (L.L.); (W.W.)
| | - Wilfried Weber
- Faculty of Biology and Signalling Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany; (M.M.K.); (L.L.); (W.W.)
- SGBM—Spemann Graduate School of Biology and Medicine, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Gerald Radziwill
- Faculty of Biology and Signalling Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany; (M.M.K.); (L.L.); (W.W.)
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15
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Chauhan A, Gretz N. Role of Visible Light on Skin Melanocytes: A Systematic Review. Photochem Photobiol 2021; 97:911-915. [PMID: 33987856 DOI: 10.1111/php.13454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
In the last few years, the focus of phototherapy has shifted toward the visible (400-700 nm) part of the electromagnetic spectrum of light. Lately, it has been demonstrated that visible light (VL) can have both beneficial and detrimental effects, especially on the skin. Previously and until now, the most harmful effects on the skin are associated with ultraviolet radiation (UVR). After exposure to natural light, the most evident and immediate change is observed on skin pigmentation. Various wavelengths within the visible spectrum have been reported to alter skin pigmentation. However, the underlying mechanisms are incompletely understood so far. The article aims to shed light on the progress made in the photobiology field (photobiomodulation, PBM) to study the role of visible light on skin melanocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aparna Chauhan
- Medical faculty of Mannheim, Medical Research Center, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Norbert Gretz
- Medical faculty of Mannheim, Medical Research Center, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
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16
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Mumford TR, Roth L, Bugaj LJ. Reverse and Forward Engineering Multicellular Structures with Optogenetics. CURRENT OPINION IN BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING 2020; 16:61-71. [PMID: 33718689 PMCID: PMC7945718 DOI: 10.1016/j.cobme.2020.100250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Understanding how cells self-organize into functional higher-order structures is of great interest, both towards deciphering animal development, as well as for our ability to predictably build custom tissues to meet research and therapeutic needs. The proper organization of cells across length-scales results from interconnected and dynamic networks of molecules and cells. Optogenetic probes provide dynamic and tunable control over molecular events within cells, and thus represent a powerful approach to both dissect and control collective cell behaviors. Here we emphasize the breadth of the optogenetic toolkit and discuss how these methods have already been used to reverse-engineer the design rules of developing organisms. We also offer our perspective on the rich potential for optogenetics to power forward-engineering of tissue assembly towards the generation of bespoke tissues with user-defined properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas R. Mumford
- University of Pennsylvania, Department of Bioengineering, 240 Skirkanich Hall, 210 South 33 Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19104, United States
| | - Lee Roth
- University of Pennsylvania, Department of Bioengineering, 240 Skirkanich Hall, 210 South 33 Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19104, United States
| | - Lukasz J. Bugaj
- University of Pennsylvania, Department of Bioengineering, 240 Skirkanich Hall, 210 South 33 Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19104, United States
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17
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Humphreys PA, Woods S, Smith CA, Bates N, Cain SA, Lucas R, Kimber SJ. Optogenetic Control of the BMP Signaling Pathway. ACS Synth Biol 2020; 9:3067-3078. [PMID: 33084303 PMCID: PMC7927147 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.0c00315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are members of the transforming growth factor β (TGFβ) superfamily and have crucial roles during development; including mesodermal patterning and specification of renal, hepatic, and skeletal tissues. In vitro developmental models currently rely upon costly and unreliable recombinant BMP proteins that do not enable dynamic or precise activation of the BMP signaling pathway. Here, we report the development of an optogenetic BMP signaling system (optoBMP) that enables rapid induction of the canonical BMP signaling pathway driven by illumination with blue light. We demonstrate the utility of the optoBMP system in multiple human cell lines to initiate signal transduction through phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of SMAD1/5, leading to upregulation of BMP target genes including Inhibitors of DNA binding ID2 and ID4. Furthermore, we demonstrate how the optoBMP system can be used to fine-tune activation of the BMP signaling pathway through variable light stimulation. Optogenetic control of BMP signaling will enable dynamic and high-throughput intervention across a variety of applications in cellular and developmental systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul A. Humphreys
- Division
of Cell Matrix & Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Biology, Medicine
and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, U.K.
- Division
of Neuroscience & Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Biology,
Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, U.K.
| | - Steven Woods
- Division
of Cell Matrix & Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Biology, Medicine
and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, U.K.
| | - Christopher A. Smith
- Division
of Cell Matrix & Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Biology, Medicine
and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, U.K.
| | - Nicola Bates
- Division
of Cell Matrix & Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Biology, Medicine
and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, U.K.
| | - Stuart A. Cain
- Division
of Cell Matrix & Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Biology, Medicine
and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, U.K.
| | - Robert Lucas
- Division
of Neuroscience & Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Biology,
Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, U.K.
| | - Susan J. Kimber
- Division
of Cell Matrix & Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Biology, Medicine
and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, U.K.
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18
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Ding Q, Diao W, Gao C, Chen X, Liu L. Microbial cell engineering to improve cellular synthetic capacity. Biotechnol Adv 2020; 45:107649. [PMID: 33091485 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2020.107649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Rapid technological progress in gene assembly, biosensors, and genetic circuits has led to reinforce the cellular synthetic capacity for chemical production. However, overcoming the current limitations of these techniques in maintaining cellular functions and enhancing the cellular synthetic capacity (e.g., catalytic efficiency, strain performance, and cell-cell communication) remains challenging. In this review, we propose a strategy for microbial cell engineering to improve the cellular synthetic capacity by utilizing biotechnological tools along with system biology methods to regulate cellular functions during chemical production. Current strategies in microbial cell engineering are mainly focused on the organelle, cell, and consortium levels. This review highlights the potential of using biotechnology to further develop the field of microbial cell engineering and provides guidance for utilizing microorganisms as attractive regulation targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China; Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Wenwen Diao
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China; Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Cong Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China; Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Xiulai Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China; Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Liming Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China; Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China; International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China.
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19
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Choi IY, Lim H, Huynh A, Schofield J, Cho HJ, Lee H, Andersen P, Shin JH, Heo WD, Hyun SH, Kim YJ, Oh Y, Kim H, Lee G. Novel culture system via wirelessly controllable optical stimulation of the FGF signaling pathway for human and pig pluripotency. Biomaterials 2020; 269:120222. [PMID: 32736809 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2020.120222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2019] [Revised: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Stem cell fate is largely determined by cellular signaling networks and is heavily dependent on the supplementation of exogenous recombinant proteins into culture media; however, uneven distribution and inconsistent stability of recombinant proteins are closely associated with the spontaneous differentiation of pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) and result in significant costs in large-scale manufacturing. Here, we report a novel PSC culture system via wirelessly controllable optical activation of the fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signaling pathway without the need for supplementation of recombinant FGF2 protein, a key molecule for maintaining pluripotency of PSCs. Using a fusion protein between the cytoplasmic region of the FGF receptor-1 and a light-oxygen-voltage domain, we achieved tunable, blue light-dependent activation of FGF signaling in human and porcine PSCs. Our data demonstrate that a highly controllable optical stimulation of the FGF signaling pathway is sufficient for long-term maintenance of PSCs, without the loss of differentiation potential into three germ layers. This culture system will be a cost-effective platform for a large-scale stem cell culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- In Young Choi
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Pathology, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - HoTae Lim
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungbuk National University, Chungbuk, Republic of Korea
| | - Alex Huynh
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - James Schofield
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Hyeon Jin Cho
- Lieber Institute for Brain Development, Johns Hopkins Medical Campus, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Hosuk Lee
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Peter Andersen
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Joo Heon Shin
- Lieber Institute for Brain Development, Johns Hopkins Medical Campus, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Won Do Heo
- Center for Cognition and Sociality, Institute for Basic Science, Daejeon, Republic of Korea; Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Hwan Hyun
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungbuk National University, Chungbuk, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong Jun Kim
- Department of Pathology, Department of Biomedical Science, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Yohan Oh
- Department of Biomedical Science, Graduate School of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Hanyang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
| | - Hyesoo Kim
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Gabsang Lee
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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20
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Kainrath S, Janovjak H. Design and Application of Light-Regulated Receptor Tyrosine Kinases. Methods Mol Biol 2020; 2173:233-246. [PMID: 32651922 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-0755-8_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
Abstract
Understanding how the activity of membrane receptors and cellular signaling pathways shapes cell behavior is of fundamental interest in basic and applied research. Reengineering receptors to react to light instead of their cognate ligands allows for generating defined signaling inputs with high spatial and temporal precision and facilitates the dissection of complex signaling networks. Here, we describe fundamental considerations in the design of light-regulated receptor tyrosine kinases (Opto-RTKs) and appropriate control experiments. We also introduce methods for transient receptor expression in HEK293 cells, quantitative assessment of signaling activity in reporter gene assays, semiquantitative assessment of (in)activation time courses through Western blot (WB) analysis, and easy to implement light stimulation hardware.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Kainrath
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria (IST Austria), Klosterneuburg, Austria.,Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute (ARMI), Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia.,European Molecular Biology Laboratory Australia (EMBL Australia), Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Harald Janovjak
- Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute (ARMI), Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia. .,European Molecular Biology Laboratory Australia (EMBL Australia), Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia.
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21
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Huang P, Liu A, Song Y, Hope JM, Cui B, Duan L. Optical Activation of TrkB Signaling. J Mol Biol 2020; 432:3761-3770. [PMID: 32422149 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2020.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2019] [Revised: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor, via activation of tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB), plays a critical role in neuronal proliferation, differentiation, survival, and death. Dysregulation of TrkB signaling is implicated in neurodegenerative disorders and cancers. Precise activation of TrkB signaling with spatial and temporal resolution is greatly desired to study the dynamic nature of TrkB signaling and its role in related diseases. Here we develop different optogenetic approaches that use light to activate TrkB signaling. Utilizing the photosensitive protein Arabidopsis thaliana cryptochrome 2, the light-inducible homo-interaction of the intracellular domain of TrkB in the cytosol or on the plasma membrane is able to induce the activation of downstream MAPK/ERK and PI3K/Akt signaling as well as the neurite outgrowth of PC12 cells. Moreover, we prove that such strategies are generalizable to other optical homo-dimerizers by demonstrating the optical TrkB activation based on the light-oxygen-voltage domain of aureochrome 1 from Vaucheria frigida. The results open up new possibilities of many other optical platforms to activate TrkB signaling to fulfill customized needs. By comparing all the different strategies, we find that the cryptochrome 2-integrated approach to achieve light-induced cell membrane recruitment and homo-interaction of intracellular domain of TrkB is most efficient in activating TrkB signaling. The optogenetic strategies presented are promising tools to investigate brain-derived neurotrophic factor/TrkB signaling with tight spatial and temporal control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peiyuan Huang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Sha Tin, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Aofei Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Yutong Song
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Sha Tin, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Jen M Hope
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Bianxiao Cui
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Liting Duan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Sha Tin, Hong Kong, SAR, China.
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22
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Huang D, Ren J, Li R, Guan C, Feng Z, Bao B, Wang W, Zhou C. Tooth Regeneration: Insights from Tooth Development and Spatial-Temporal Control of Bioactive Drug Release. Stem Cell Rev Rep 2020; 16:41-55. [PMID: 31834583 PMCID: PMC6987083 DOI: 10.1007/s12015-019-09940-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Tooth defect and tooth loss are common clinical diseases in stomatology. Compared with the traditional oral restoration treatment, tooth regeneration has unique advantages and is currently the focus of oral biomedical research. It is known that dozens of cytokines/growth factors and other bioactive factors are expressed in a spatial-temporal pattern during tooth development. On the other hand, the technology for spatial-temporal control of drug release has been intensively studied and well developed recently, making control release of these bioactive factors mimicking spatial-temporal pattern more feasible than ever for the purpose of tooth regeneration. This article reviews the research progress on the tooth development and discusses the future of tooth regeneration in the context of spatial-temporal release of developmental factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delan Huang
- Guanghua School of Stomatology, Hospital of Stomatology, and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jianhan Ren
- Guanghua School of Stomatology, Hospital of Stomatology, and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Runze Li
- Guanghua School of Stomatology, Hospital of Stomatology, and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chenyu Guan
- Guanghua School of Stomatology, Hospital of Stomatology, and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhicai Feng
- Guanghua School of Stomatology, Hospital of Stomatology, and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Baicheng Bao
- Guanghua School of Stomatology, Hospital of Stomatology, and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Weicai Wang
- Guanghua School of Stomatology, Hospital of Stomatology, and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chen Zhou
- Guanghua School of Stomatology, Hospital of Stomatology, and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
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23
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Hong J, Heo WD. Optogenetic Modulation of TrkB Signaling in the Mouse Brain. J Mol Biol 2020; 432:815-827. [PMID: 31962123 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2020.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Revised: 12/22/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Optogenetic activation of receptors has advantages compared with chemical or ligand treatment because of its high spatial and temporal precision. Especially in the brain, the use of a genetically encoded light-tunable receptor is superior to direct infusion or systemic drug treatment. We applied light-activatable TrkB receptors in the mouse brain with reduced basal activity by incorporating Cry2PHR mutant, Opto-cytTrkB(E281A). Upon AAV mediated gene delivery, this form was expressed at sufficient levels in the mouse hippocampus (HPC) and medial entorhinal cortex (MEC) retaining normal canonical signal transduction by the blue light stimulus, even by delivery of noninvasive LED light on the mouse head. Within target cells, where its expression was driven by a cell type-specific promoter, Opto-cytTrkB(E281A)-mediated TrkB signaling could be controlled by adjusting light-stimulating conditions. We further demonstrated that Opto-cytTrkB(E281A) could locally induce TrkB signaling in axon terminals in the MEC-HPC. In summary, Opto-cytTrkB(E281A) will be useful for elucidating time- and region-specific roles of TrkB signaling ranging from cellular function to neural circuit mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jongryul Hong
- Department of Biological Science, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 305-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Won Do Heo
- Department of Biological Science, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 305-701, Republic of Korea; Center for Cognition and Sociality, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Daejeon, 305-701, Republic of Korea; KAIST Institute for the BioCentury, KAIST, Daejeon, 305-701, Republic of Korea.
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24
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Hu W, Li Q, Li B, Ma K, Zhang C, Fu X. Optogenetics sheds new light on tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Biomaterials 2019; 227:119546. [PMID: 31655444 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2019.119546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2019] [Revised: 10/09/2019] [Accepted: 10/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Optogenetics has demonstrated great potential in the fields of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, from basic research to clinical applications. Spatiotemporal encoding during individual development has been widely identified and is considered a novel strategy for regeneration. A as a noninvasive method with high spatiotemporal resolution, optogenetics are suitable for this strategy. In this review, we discuss roles of dynamic signal coding in cell physiology and embryonic development. Several optogenetic systems are introduced as ideal optogenetic tools, and their features are compared. In addition, potential applications of optogenetics for tissue engineering are discussed, including light-controlled genetic engineering and regulation of signaling pathways. Furthermore, we present how emerging biomaterials and photoelectric technologies have greatly promoted the clinical application of optogenetics and inspired new concepts for optically controlled therapies. Our summation of currently available data conclusively demonstrates that optogenetic tools are a promising method for elucidating and simulating developmental processes, thus providing vast prospects for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenzhi Hu
- Wound Healing and Cell Biology Laboratory, Institute of Basic Medicine Science, College of Life Science, Chinese PLA General Hospital, 28 Fuxing Road, Beijing, 100853, PR China; Key Laboratory of Tissue Repair and Regeneration of PLA and Beijing Key Research Laboratory of Skin Injury, Repair and Regeneration, Fourth Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital, 100048, Beijing, PR China
| | - Qiankun Li
- Wound Healing and Cell Biology Laboratory, Institute of Basic Medicine Science, College of Life Science, Chinese PLA General Hospital, 28 Fuxing Road, Beijing, 100853, PR China; Key Laboratory of Tissue Repair and Regeneration of PLA and Beijing Key Research Laboratory of Skin Injury, Repair and Regeneration, Fourth Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital, 100048, Beijing, PR China
| | - Bingmin Li
- Wound Healing and Cell Biology Laboratory, Institute of Basic Medicine Science, College of Life Science, Chinese PLA General Hospital, 28 Fuxing Road, Beijing, 100853, PR China; Key Laboratory of Tissue Repair and Regeneration of PLA and Beijing Key Research Laboratory of Skin Injury, Repair and Regeneration, Fourth Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital, 100048, Beijing, PR China
| | - Kui Ma
- Key Laboratory of Tissue Repair and Regeneration of PLA and Beijing Key Research Laboratory of Skin Injury, Repair and Regeneration, Fourth Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital, 100048, Beijing, PR China
| | - Cuiping Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Tissue Repair and Regeneration of PLA and Beijing Key Research Laboratory of Skin Injury, Repair and Regeneration, Fourth Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital, 100048, Beijing, PR China.
| | - Xiaobing Fu
- Wound Healing and Cell Biology Laboratory, Institute of Basic Medicine Science, College of Life Science, Chinese PLA General Hospital, 28 Fuxing Road, Beijing, 100853, PR China; Key Laboratory of Tissue Repair and Regeneration of PLA and Beijing Key Research Laboratory of Skin Injury, Repair and Regeneration, Fourth Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital, 100048, Beijing, PR China.
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25
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Serrage H, Heiskanen V, Palin WM, Cooper PR, Milward MR, Hadis M, Hamblin MR. Under the spotlight: mechanisms of photobiomodulation concentrating on blue and green light. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2019; 18:1877-1909. [PMID: 31183484 DOI: 10.1039/c9pp00089e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Photobiomodulation (PBM) describes the application of light at wavelengths ranging from 400-1100 nm to promote tissue healing, reduce inflammation and promote analgesia. Traditionally, red and near-infra red (NIR) light have been used therapeutically, however recent studies indicate that other wavelengths within the visible spectrum could prove beneficial including blue and green light. This review aims to evaluate the literature surrounding the potential therapeutic effects of PBM with particular emphasis on the effects of blue and green light. In particular focus is on the possible primary and secondary molecular mechanisms of PBM and also evaluation of the potential effective parameters for application both in vitro and in vivo. Studies have reported that PBM affects an array of molecular targets, including chromophores such as signalling molecules containing flavins and porphyrins as well as components of the electron transport chain. However, secondary mechanisms tend to converge on pathways induced by increases in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Systematic evaluation of the literature indicated 72% of publications reported beneficial effects of blue light and 75% reported therapeutic effects of green light. However, of the publications evaluating the effects of green light, reporting of treatment parameters was uneven with 41% failing to report irradiance (mW cm-2) and 44% failing to report radiant exposure (J cm-2). This review highlights the potential of PBM to exert broad effects on a range of different chromophores within the body, dependent upon the wavelength of light applied. Emphasis still remains on the need to report exposure and treatment parameters, as this will enable direct comparison between different studies and hence enable the determination of the full potential of PBM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Serrage
- College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, UK.
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Zi Z. Molecular Engineering of the TGF-β Signaling Pathway. J Mol Biol 2019; 431:2644-2654. [PMID: 31121181 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2019.05.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Revised: 05/05/2019] [Accepted: 05/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) is an important growth factor that plays essential roles in regulating tissue development and homeostasis. Dysfunction of TGF-β signaling is a hallmark of many human diseases. Therefore, targeting TGF-β signaling presents broad therapeutic potential. Since the discovery of the TGF-β ligand, a collection of engineered signaling proteins have been developed to probe and manipulate TGF-β signaling responses. In this review, we highlight recent progress in the engineering of TGF-β signaling for different applications and discuss how molecular engineering approaches can advance our understanding of this important pathway. In addition, we provide a future outlook on the opportunities and challenges in the engineering of the TGF-β signaling pathway from a quantitative perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhike Zi
- Otto-Warburg Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, 14195 Berlin, Germany.
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27
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Immunoreceptor Engineering and Synthetic Cytokine Signaling for Therapeutics. Trends Immunol 2019; 40:258-272. [DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2019.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2018] [Revised: 01/11/2019] [Accepted: 01/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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28
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Duan L, Hope JM, Guo S, Ong Q, François A, Kaplan L, Scherrer G, Cui B. Optical Activation of TrkA Signaling. ACS Synth Biol 2018; 7:1685-1693. [PMID: 29975841 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.8b00126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Nerve growth factor/tropomyosin receptor kinase A (NGF/TrkA) signaling plays a key role in neuronal development, function, survival, and growth. The pathway is implicated in neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer's disease, chronic pain, inflammation, and cancer. NGF binds the extracellular domain of TrkA, leading to the activation of the receptor's intracellular kinase domain. As TrkA signaling is highly dynamic, mechanistic studies would benefit from a tool with high spatial and temporal resolution. Here we present the design and evaluation of four strategies for light-inducible activation of TrkA in the absence of NGF. Our strategies involve the light-sensitive protein Arabidopsis cryptochrome 2 and its binding partner CIB1. We demonstrate successful recapitulation of native NGF/TrkA functions by optical induction of plasma membrane recruitment and homo-interaction of the intracellular domain of TrkA. This approach activates PI3K/AKT and Raf/ERK signaling pathways, promotes neurite growth in PC12 cells, and supports survival of dorsal root ganglion neurons in the absence of NGF. This ability to activate TrkA using light bestows high spatial and temporal resolution for investigating NGF/TrkA signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liting Duan
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Jen M. Hope
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Shunling Guo
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Qunxiang Ong
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Amaury François
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford Neurosciences Institute, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California 94304, United States
| | - Luke Kaplan
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Grégory Scherrer
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford Neurosciences Institute, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California 94304, United States
- Robertson Investigator, New York Stem Cell Foundation, New York, New York 10019, United States
| | - Bianxiao Cui
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
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Abstract
Sensory photoreceptors underpin light-dependent adaptations of organismal physiology, development, and behavior in nature. Adapted for optogenetics, sensory photoreceptors become genetically encoded actuators and reporters to enable the noninvasive, spatiotemporally accurate and reversible control by light of cellular processes. Rooted in a mechanistic understanding of natural photoreceptors, artificial photoreceptors with customized light-gated function have been engineered that greatly expand the scope of optogenetics beyond the original application of light-controlled ion flow. As we survey presently, UV/blue-light-sensitive photoreceptors have particularly allowed optogenetics to transcend its initial neuroscience applications by unlocking numerous additional cellular processes and parameters for optogenetic intervention, including gene expression, DNA recombination, subcellular localization, cytoskeleton dynamics, intracellular protein stability, signal transduction cascades, apoptosis, and enzyme activity. The engineering of novel photoreceptors benefits from powerful and reusable design strategies, most importantly light-dependent protein association and (un)folding reactions. Additionally, modified versions of these same sensory photoreceptors serve as fluorescent proteins and generators of singlet oxygen, thereby further enriching the optogenetic toolkit. The available and upcoming UV/blue-light-sensitive actuators and reporters enable the detailed and quantitative interrogation of cellular signal networks and processes in increasingly more precise and illuminating manners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aba Losi
- Department of Mathematical, Physical and Computer Sciences , University of Parma , Parco Area delle Scienze 7/A-43124 Parma , Italy
| | - Kevin H Gardner
- Structural Biology Initiative, CUNY Advanced Science Research Center , New York , New York 10031 , United States.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, City College of New York , New York , New York 10031 , United States.,Ph.D. Programs in Biochemistry, Chemistry, and Biology , The Graduate Center of the City University of New York , New York , New York 10016 , United States
| | - Andreas Möglich
- Lehrstuhl für Biochemie , Universität Bayreuth , 95447 Bayreuth , Germany.,Research Center for Bio-Macromolecules , Universität Bayreuth , 95447 Bayreuth , Germany.,Bayreuth Center for Biochemistry & Molecular Biology , Universität Bayreuth , 95447 Bayreuth , Germany
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Zou X, Xiao X, Zhang S, Zhong J, Hou Y, Liao L. A photo-switchable and thermal-enhanced fluorescent hydrogel prepared from N-isopropylacrylamide with water-soluble spiropyran derivative. JOURNAL OF BIOMATERIALS SCIENCE-POLYMER EDITION 2018; 29:1579-1594. [PMID: 29792381 DOI: 10.1080/09205063.2018.1475942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
Herein, a photo-switchable and thermal-enhanced fluorescent hydrogel has been fabricated from N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAAm) with a mixture of water-soluble acryloyl-α-cyclodextrin/acryloyl-α-cyclodextrin-spiropyran (acryloyl-α-CD/ acryloyl-α-CD-SP) as cross-linkers. The physical properties, photochromic properties, and fluorescent behavior of the hydrogel were characterized. The fluorescence emission of the hydrogel can be reversibly switched 'on/off' by UV/visible light irradiation, and meanwhile the fluorescence intensity can be enhanced by increasing the temperature above the volume phase transition temperature (VPTT) of the hydrogel. The hydrogel also shows spatiotemporal fluorescent behavior, excellent cytocompatibility, and fatigue resistance in photochromic and photo-switchable fluorescent behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueqing Zou
- a College of Chemistry and Molecular Science , Wuhan University , Wuhan , P. R. China
| | - Xiaozhen Xiao
- b School of Biomedical Engineering , Southern Medical University , Guangzhou , P. R. China
| | - Shixiong Zhang
- c School of Engineering , Sun Yat-Sen University , Guangzhou , P. R. China
| | - Jiajun Zhong
- c School of Engineering , Sun Yat-Sen University , Guangzhou , P. R. China
| | - Yulin Hou
- c School of Engineering , Sun Yat-Sen University , Guangzhou , P. R. China
| | - Liqiong Liao
- a College of Chemistry and Molecular Science , Wuhan University , Wuhan , P. R. China.,b School of Biomedical Engineering , Southern Medical University , Guangzhou , P. R. China
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