Combinatorial Chemical Reengineering of the Alpha Class Glutathione Transferases

Designed protein multimerization and polymerization for functionalization of proteins

Abstract

Multimeric and polymeric proteins are large biomacromolecules consisting of multiple protein molecules as their monomeric units, connected through covalent or non-covalent bonds. Genetic modification and post-translational modifications (PTMs) of proteins offer alternative strategies for designing and creating multimeric and polymeric proteins. Multimeric proteins are commonly prepared by genetic modification, whereas polymeric proteins are usually created through PTMs. There are two methods that can be applied to create polymeric proteins: self-assembly and crosslinking. Self-assembly offers a spontaneous reaction without a catalyst, while the crosslinking reaction offers some catalyst options, such as chemicals and enzymes. In addition, enzymes are excellent catalysts because they provide site-specificity, rapid reaction, mild reaction conditions, and activity and functionality maintenance of protein polymers. However, only a few enzymes are applicable for the preparation of protein polymers. Most of the other enzymes are effective only for protein conjugation or labeling. Here, we review novel and applicable strategies for the preparation of multimeric proteins through genetic modification and self-assembly. We then describe the formation of protein polymers through site-selective crosslinking reactions catalyzed by enzymes, crosslinking reactions of non-natural amino acids, and protein-peptide (SpyCatcher/SpyTag) interactions. Finally, we discuss the potential applications of these protein polymers.

Graphical abstract

A Multipurpose receptor composed of promiscuous proteins. Analyte detection through pattern recognition

A multipurpose receptor akin to the "electronic nose" was composed of coumarin-labeled mutants of human glutathione transferase A1. We have previously constructed a kit for site-specific modification of a lysine residue (A216K) using a thiol ester of glutathione (GSC-Cou bio) as a modifying reagent. In the present investigation, we scrambled the hydrophobic binding site (H-site) of the protein scaffold through mutations at position M208 via random mutagenesis and isolated a representative library of 11 A216K/M208X mutants. All of the double mutants could be site-specifically labeled to form the K216 Cou conjugates. The labeled proteins responded to the addition of different analytes with signature changes in their fluorescence spectra resulting in a matrix of 96 data points per analyte. Ligands as diverse as n-valeric acid, fumaric acid monoethyl ester, lithocholic acid, 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB), glutathione (GSH), S-methyl-GSH, S-hexyl-GSH, and GS-DNB all gave rise to signals that potentially can be interpreted through pattern recognition. The measured K d values range from low micromolar to low millimolar. The cysteine residue C112 was used to anchor the coumarin-labeled protein to a PEG-based hydrogel chip in order to develop surface-based biosensing systems. We have thus initiated the development of a multipurpose, artificial receptor composed of an array of promiscuous proteins where detection of the analyte occurs through pattern recognition of fluorescence signals. In this system, many relatively poor binders each contribute to detailed readout in a truly egalitarian fashion.

Orthogonal protein purification--expanding the repertoire of GST fusion systems

We have previously developed a labeling scheme that can be used to site-specifically link human glutathione transferases (hGSTs) from the alpha class to chemical entities such as fluorophores and aldehydes. The reagents are in-house synthesized derivatives of glutathione (GS-derivatives). We have focused on a lysine mutant of hGST A1:A216K. In this study, we wanted to utilize these findings and improve on protein purification schemes that are using GSTs as fusion partners. We have used random mutagenesis to scramble the hydrophobic binding site of A216K through mutations at position M208 and isolated a library of 11 A216K/M208X mutants. All mutants were easily expressed and purified and retained all or parts of the catalytic properties of the parent GST. The mutants were stable over several days at room temperature. The A216K/M208X mutants could be site-specifically labeled using our designed fluorescent reagents. Furthermore, reaction with an aldehyde-containing reagent termed GS-Al results in site-specific introduction of an orthogonal handle for subsequent conjugation with aldehyde-reactive probes. Labeling with coumarin results in a fluorescent protein-conjugate that can bind glutathione (GSH) derivatives for subsequent affinity purification. The K(d) for S-hexyl-GSH of coumarin-labeled A216K was measured to be 2.5 microM. The candidate proteins A216K and A216K/M208F could be purified in high yield in a one-step procedure through affinity chromatography (Glutathione Sepharose 4B). The proteins can readily be perceived as improved GST fusion partners.

Irreversibly binding anti-metal chelate antibodies: Artificial receptors for pretargeting

Antibodies against metal chelates may potentially be used in biomedical applications such as targeted imaging and therapy of cancer. Highly specific monoclonal antibodies can be developed, but their binding strength needs to be maximized for them to be of practical use. In general, the half-life for dissociation of an antibody-ligand complex is more than an order of magnitude lower than the half-lifetimes for decay of medically useful radiometal ions. Practically speaking, the metal chelate-based ligand will not be bound to its receptor long enough for all of the bound radiometal to decay. A novel approach to this problem is a combination of synthetic chemistry and site-directed mutagenesis, to position a mildly reactive group on the metal chelate adjacent to a complementary reactive group on the antibody when the complex is formed. The partners are chosen to be sufficiently unreactive so that they coexist with other molecules in living systems without undergoing reaction. When the antibody-chelate complex is formed the effective local concentrations of the two groups can be non-physically large, so that a permanent link is formed in the complex even though no reaction occurs when the partners are free in solution.

A promiscuous glutathione transferase transformed into a selective thiolester hydrolase

Human glutathione transferase A1-1 (hGST A1-1) can be reengineered by rational design into a catalyst for thiolester hydrolysis with a catalytic proficiency of 1.4 x 10(7) M(-1). The thiolester hydrolase, A216H that was obtained by the introduction of a single histidine residue at position 216 catalyzed the hydrolysis of a substrate termed GSB, a thiolester of glutathione and benzoic acid. Here we investigate the substrate requirements of this designed enzyme by screening a thiolester library. We found that only two thiolesters out of 18 were substrates for A216H. The A216H-catalyzed hydrolysis of GS-2 (thiolester of glutathione and naphthalenecarboxylic acid) exhibits a k(cat) of 0.0032 min(-1) and a KM of 41 microM. The previously reported catalysis of GSB has a k(cat) of 0.00078 min(-1) and KM of 5 microM. The k(cat) for A216H-catalyzed hydrolysis of GS-2 is thus 4.1 times higher than for GSB. The catalytic proficiency (k(cat)/KM)/k(uncat) for GS-2 is 3 x 10(6) M(-1). The promiscuous feature of the wt protein towards a range of different substrates has not been conserved in A216H but we have obtained a selective enzyme with high demands on the substrate.