Functionalized Graphene Oxide Nanoparticles for Cancer Cell-Specific Delivery of Antitumor Drug

Graphene-based hybrid composites for cancer diagnostic and therapy

The application of graphene-based nanocomposites for therapeutic and diagnostic reasons has advanced considerably in recent years due to advancements in the synthesis and design of graphene-based nanocomposites, giving rise to a new field of nano-cancer diagnosis and treatment. Nano-graphene is being utilized more often in the field of cancer therapy, where it is employed in conjunction with diagnostics and treatment to address the complex clinical obstacles and problems associated with this life-threatening illness. When compared to other nanomaterials, graphene derivatives stand out due to their remarkable structural, mechanical, electrical, optical, and thermal capabilities. The high specific surface area of these materials makes them useful as carriers in controlled release systems that respond to external stimuli; these compounds include drugs and biomolecules like nucleic acid sequences (DNA and RNA). Furthermore, the presence of distinctive sheet-like nanostructures and the capacity for photothermal conversion have rendered graphene-based nanocomposites highly favorable for optical therapeutic applications, including photothermal treatment (PTT), photodynamic therapy (PDT), and theranostics. This review highlights the current state and benefits of using graphene-based nanocomposites in cancer diagnosis and therapy and discusses the obstacles and prospects of their future development. Then we focus on graphene-based nanocomposites applications in cancer treatment, including smart drug delivery systems, PTT, and PDT. Lastly, the biocompatibility of graphene-based nanocomposites is also discussed to provide a unique overview of the topic.

pH-responsive self-assembled nanoparticles for tumor-targeted drug delivery

Recent advances in the field of drug delivery have opened new avenues for the development of novel nanodrug delivery systems (NDDS) in cancer therapy. Self-assembled nanoparticles (SANPs) based on tumour microenvironment have great advantages in improving antitumor effect, and pH-responsive SANPs prepared by the combination of pH-responsive nanomaterials and self-assembly technology can effectively improve the efficacy and reduce the systemic toxicity of antitumor drugs. In this review, we describe the characteristics of self-assembly and its driving force, the mechanism of pH-responsive NDDS, and the nanomaterials for pH-responsive SANPs type. A series of pH-responsive SANPs for tumour-targeted drug delivery are discussed, with an emphasis on the relation between structural features and theranostic performance.

Synthesis and biological properties of novel glucose-based fluoro segmented macromolecular architectures

The emergence of novel well-defined biological macromolecular architectures containing fluorine moieties displaying superior functionalities can satisfactorily address many biomedical challenges. In this research, ABA- and AB-type glucose-based biological macromolecules were synthesized using acryl-2,3,4,6-tetra-O-acetyl-D-glucopyranoside with pentafluorophenyl (FPM), pentafluorobenzyl (FBM), phenyl (PM) and benzyl (BM) methacrylate-based macro-RAFT agents following RAFT polymerization. The macro-RAFT agents and the corresponding copolymers were characterized by 19F, 1H, and 13C NMR and FTIR spectroscopic techniques to understand the chemical structure, molecular weight by size-exclusion chromatography, thermal analysis by TGA and DSC. Thermal stability (Td5%) of the FPM and FBM fluoro-based polymers was observed in the range of 219-267 °C, while the non-fluoro PM and BM polymers exhibited in the range of 216-264 °C. Among the macro-RAFT agents, PFPM (107 °C, ΔH: 0.613 J/g) and PPM (103 °C, ΔH: 0.455 J/g) showed higher Tm values, while among the block copolymers, PFBM-b-PG (123 °C, ΔH: 0.412 J/g) and PG-b-PFPM-b-PG (126 °C, ΔH: 0.525 J/g) exhibited higher Tm values. PFBMT and PPM macro-RAFT agents, PPM-b-PG and PG-b-PPM-b-PG copolymer spin-coated films showed the highest hydrophobicity (120°) among the synthesized polymers. The block copolymers exhibited self-assembled segregation by using relatively hydrophobic segments as the core and hydrophilic moieties as the corona. Synthesized biological macromolecules exhibit maximum antibacterial activity towards S. aureus than E. coli bacteria. Fluorophenyl (PFPM) and non-fluorobenzyl-based (PBMT) macro-RAFT agents exhibit low IC50 values, suggesting high cytotoxicity. All the triblock copolymers exhibit lesser cytotoxicity than the di-block polymers.

Recent advances in photodynamic therapy combined with chemotherapy for cervical cancer: a systematic review

INTRODUCTION

Despite the evidence that photodynamic therapy (PDT) associated with chemotherapy presents great potential to overcome the limitations of monotherapy, little is known about the current status of this combination against cervical cancer. This systematic review aimed to address the currently available advances in combining PDT and chemotherapy in different research models and clinical trials of cervical cancer.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic review based on PRISMA Statement and Open Science Framework review protocol using PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, Scopus, LILACS, and Cochrane databases. We selected original articles focusing on 'Uterine Cervical Neoplasms' and 'Photochemotherapy and Chemotherapy' published in the last 10 years. The risk of bias in the studies was assessed using the CONSORT and SYRCLE tools.

RESULTS

Twenty-three original articles were included, focusing on HeLa cells, derived from endocervical adenocarcinoma and on combinations of several chemotherapeutics. Most of the combinations used modern drug delivery systems for improved simultaneous delivery and presented promising results with increased cytotoxicity compared to monotherapy.

CONCLUSION

Despite the scarcity of animal studies and the absence of clinical studies, the combination of chemotherapy with PDT presents a potential option for cervical cancer therapy requiring additional studies.

OSF REGISTRATION

https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/WPHN5 [Figure: see text].

Graphene Oxide Nanoparticles and Organoids: A Prospective Advanced Model for Pancreatic Cancer Research

Pancreatic cancer, notorious for its grim 10% five-year survival rate, poses significant clinical challenges, largely due to late-stage diagnosis and limited therapeutic options. This review delves into the generation of organoids, including those derived from resected tissues, biopsies, pluripotent stem cells, and adult stem cells, as well as the advancements in 3D printing. It explores the complexities of the tumor microenvironment, emphasizing culture media, the integration of non-neoplastic cells, and angiogenesis. Additionally, the review examines the multifaceted properties of graphene oxide (GO), such as its mechanical, thermal, electrical, chemical, and optical attributes, and their implications in cancer diagnostics and therapeutics. GO's unique properties facilitate its interaction with tumors, allowing targeted drug delivery and enhanced imaging for early detection and treatment. The integration of GO with 3D cultured organoid systems, particularly in pancreatic cancer research, is critically analyzed, highlighting current limitations and future potential. This innovative approach has the promise to transform personalized medicine, improve drug screening efficiency, and aid biomarker discovery in this aggressive disease. Through this review, we offer a balanced perspective on the advancements and future prospects in pancreatic cancer research, harnessing the potential of organoids and GO.

The Use of Crystalline Carbon-Based Nanomaterials (CBNs) in Various Biomedical Applications

This review study aims to present, in a condensed manner, the significance of the use of crystalline carbon-based nanomaterials in biomedical applications. Crystalline carbon-based nanomaterials, encompassing graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, carbon nanotubes, and graphene quantum dots, have emerged as promising materials for the development of medical devices in various biomedical applications. These materials possess inorganic semiconducting attributes combined with organic π-π stacking features, allowing them to efficiently interact with biomolecules and present enhanced light responses. By harnessing these unique properties, carbon-based nanomaterials offer promising opportunities for future advancements in biomedicine. Recent studies have focused on the development of these nanomaterials for targeted drug delivery, cancer treatment, and biosensors. The conjugation and modification of carbon-based nanomaterials have led to significant advancements in a plethora of therapies and have addressed limitations in preclinical biomedical applications. Furthermore, the wide-ranging therapeutic advantages of carbon nanotubes have been thoroughly examined in the context of biomedical applications.

Design strategy and research progress of multifunctional nanoparticles in lung cancer therapy

INTRODUCTION

Lung cancer is one of the cancer types with the highest mortality rate, exploring a more effective treatment modality that improves therapeutic efficacy while mitigating side effects is now an urgent requirement. Designing multifunctional nanoparticles can be used to overcome the limitations of drugs and conventional drug delivery systems. Nanotechnology has been widely researched, and through different needs, suitable nanocarriers can be selected to load anti-cancer drugs to improve the therapeutic effect. It is foreseeable that with the rapid development of nanotechnology, more and more lung cancer patients will benefit from nanotechnology. This paper reviews the merits of various multifunctional nanoparticles in the treatment of lung cancer to provide novel ideas for lung cancer treatment.

AREAS COVERED

This review focuses on summarizing various nanoparticles for targeted lung cancer therapy and their advantages and disadvantages, using nanoparticles loaded with anti-cancer drugs, delivered to lung cancer sites, enhancing drug half-life, improving anti-cancer drug efficacy and reducing side effects.

EXPERT OPINION

The delivery mode of nanoparticles with superior pharmacokinetic properties in the in vivo circulation enhances the half-life of the drug, and provides tissue-targeted selectivity and the ability to overcome biological barriers, bringing a revolution in the field of oncology.

Effect of Poly(methacrylic acid) on the Cytokine Level in an In Vivo Tumor Model

Cancer is a leading cause of mortality globally. Despite remarkable improvements in cancer-treatment approaches, disease recurrence and progression remain major obstacles to therapy. While chemotherapy is still a first-line treatment for a variety of cancers, the focus has shifted to the development and application of new approaches to therapy. Nevertheless, the relationship between immune response, neoplastic diseases and treatment efficiency is not fully understood. Therefore, the aim of the study was to investigate the immunopharmacological effects of methacrylic acid homopolymer in an in vivo tumor model. Materials and methods: Monomeric methacrylic acid was used to synthesize polymers. Methacrylic acid was polymerized in dioxane in the presence of 4-Cyano-4-[(dodecylsulfanylthiocarbonyl)sulfanyl]pentanoic acid. To study the molecular weight characteristics of PMAA by GPC, carboxyl groups were preliminarily methylated with diazomethane. An experimental cancer model was obtained by grafting RMK1 breast cancer cells. The serum levels of IL-6, IL-10, IL-17, transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1), and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) were measured by ELISA. Results: The effect of PMAA on the serum concentrations of several cytokines was studied upon its single administration to laboratory animals in early neoplastic process. The IL-6, IL-17 and TGF-β1 concentrations were found to change significantly and reach the level observed in intact rats. The IL-10 concentration tended to normalize. Conclusion: The positive results obtained are the basis for further studies on the effect of methacrylic-acid polymers with different molecular-weight characteristics on the neoplastic process.

Biomedical applications of metallic nanoparticles in cancer: Current status and future perspectives

The current advancements in nanotechnology are as an outcome of the development of engineered nanoparticles. Various metallic nanoparticles have been extensively explored for various biomedical applications. They attract lot of attention in biomedical field due to their significant inert nature, and nanoscale structures, with size similar to many biological molecules. Their intrinsic characteristics which include electronic, optical, physicochemical and, surface plasmon resonance, that can be changed by altering certain particle characteristics such as size, shape, environment, aspect ratio, ease of synthesis and functionalization properties have led to numerous applications in various fields of biomedicine. These include targeted drug delivery, sensing, photothermal and photodynamic therapy, imaging, as well as the modulation of two or three applications. The current article also discusses about the various properties of metallic nanoparticles and their applications in cancer imaging and therapeutics. The associated bottlenecks related to their clinical translation are also discussed.

Advances in analysis of pharmaceuticals by using graphene-based sensors

Safe and effective use of drugs relies on proper pharmaceutical analysis. Graphene has been extensively used to construct sensors for this purpose. Over the years, a large variety of pharmaceutical sensors have been developed from graphene or its derivatives. This articles reviews the current status of sensor development from graphene and its derivatives, and discusses the use of graphene-based sensors in pharmaceutical analysis. It is hoped that this article cannot only offer a snapshot of recent advances in the fabrication and use of graphene-based sensors, but can also provide insights into future engineering and optimization of the sensors for effective pharmaceutical analysis.

Size- and Oxidation-Dependent Toxicity of Graphene Oxide Nanomaterials in Embryonic Zebrafish

Graphene oxides (GOs) are a popular graphene alternative. The goal of this study was to compare the biocompatibility of a diversity of well-characterized GOs. Our previous work advanced developmental zebrafish as a model to interrogate the interactions and biological responses following exposures to engineered nanomaterials (ENMs). Here, we investigated GO 250 nm × 250 nm (sGO), 400 nm × 400 nm (mGO), and 1 μm × 1 μm (lGO), partially reduced GO (prGO) 400 nm × 400 nm, and reduced GO (rGO) 400 nm × 400 nm and 2 μm × 2 μm, which first underwent extensive characterization under the support of the Nanomaterials Health Implications Research (NHIR) Consortium. GOs were stabilized in water (GOs), while prGO and rGOs were dispersed in sodium cholate. Zebrafish were statically exposed to up to 50 μg/mL of each material from 6 h post-fertilization (hpf) until 120 hpf. Toxicity was dependent on GO properties. mGO was the most toxic material; its effects manifested in the yolk syncytial layer (YSL). Additionally, sodium cholate stabilization significantly increased GO toxicity. The observed effects were size- and oxidation-state-dependent, revealing the importance of identifying the structure-specific toxicity of GOs.

Doxorubicin-loaded graphene oxide nanocomposites in cancer medicine: Stimuli-responsive carriers, co-delivery and suppressing resistance

INTRODUCTION

The application of doxorubicin (DOX) in cancer therapy has been limited due to its drug resistance and poor internalization. Graphene oxide (GO) nanostructures have the capacity for DOX delivery while promoting its cytotoxicity in cancer.

AREAS COVERED

The favorable characteristics of GO nanocomposites, preparation method, and application in cancer therapy are described. Then, DOX resistance in cancer is discussed. The GO-mediated photothermal therapy and DOX delivery for cancer suppression are described. Preparation of stimuli-responsive GO nanocomposites, surface functionalization, hybrid nanoparticles, and theranostic applications are emphasized in DOX chemotherapy.

EXPERT OPINION

Graphene oxide nanoparticle-based photothermal therapy maximizes the anti-cancer activity of DOX against cancer cells. Apart from DOX delivery, GO nanomaterials are capable of loading anti-cancer agents and genetic tools to minimize drug resistance and enhance the cytolytic impact of DOX in cancer eradication. To enhance DOX accumulation in cancer cells, stimuli-responsive (redox-, light-, enzyme- and pH-sensitive) GO nanoparticles have been developed for DOX delivery. Further development of targeted delivery of DOX-loaded GO nanomaterials against cancer cells may be achieved by surface modification of polymers such as polyethylene glycol, hyaluronic acid, and chitosan. Doxorubicin-loaded GO nanoparticles have demonstrated theranostic potential for simultaneous diagnosis and therapy. Hybridization of GO with other nanocarriers such as silica and gold nanoparticles further broadens their potential anti-cancer therapy applications.

Applications of Pristine and Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene, and Graphene Nanoribbons in Biomedicine

This review is dedicated to a comprehensive description of the latest achievements in the chemical functionalization routes and applications of carbon nanomaterials (CNMs), such as carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphene nanoribbons. The review starts from the description of noncovalent and covalent exohedral modification approaches, as well as an endohedral functionalization method. After that, the methods to improve the functionalities of CNMs are highlighted. These methods include the functionalization for improving the hydrophilicity, biocompatibility, blood circulation time and tumor accumulation, and the cellular uptake and selectivity. The main part of this review includes the description of the applications of functionalized CNMs in bioimaging, drug delivery, and biosensors. Then, the toxicity studies of CNMs are highlighted. Finally, the further directions of the development of the field are presented.

Nanomaterial conjugated lignocellulosic waste: cost-effective production of sustainable bioenergy using enzymes

The demand for novel and renewable sources of energy has increased as a result of rapid population growth, limited sources of bioenergy, and environmental pollution, caused by excessive use of fossil fuels. The need to meet future energy demands have motivated researchers to search for alternative and sustainable sources of energy. The bioconversion of lignocellulosic waste (agricultural and food waste) into biofuels shows competitive promises. Lignocellulosic waste is easily accessible and has a large enzyme system that can be immobilised onto nano-matrices. Consequently, resulting in higher biofuel production and process efficiency. However, the excessive production cost of the current procedures, which involve physical, chemical, and enzymatic reactions, is limited. The use of nanomaterials has recently been shown to concentrate lignocellulosic waste, therefore, reviewing the quest for efficient production of sustainable and cost-effective development of bioenergy from lignocellulosic wastes. This review paper explores the advanced strategies of using nanobiotechnology to combine enzyme-conjugated nanosystems for the cost-effective production of sustainable bioenergy solutions. This research will help to develop an inexpensive, eco-friendly technology for biofuels production and also help overcome the environmental burden of lignocellulosic waste worldwide.

A potentially valuable nano graphene oxide/USPIO tumor diagnosis and treatment system

Due to increased requirements for precision cancer treatment, cancer chemotherapy and combination therapies have gradually developed in the direction of diagnosis and treatment integration. In this study, a non-toxic nano carrier that demonstrates integrated MRI signal enhancing performance, as well as better chemotherapy and photothermal conversion performance, was prepared and characterized. Furthermore, the carrier was used to construct an integrated system of tumor diagnosis and treatment. Our in vitro studies showed that this system has a considerable inhibition effect on tumor cells during the treatment of chemotherapy when combined with PTT, and in vivo studies showed that the system could improve the MRI signal of the tumor site with application of a safe dosage. Thus, this system based on NGO/USPIO has the potential to be a multi-functional nano drug delivery system integrating diagnosis and treatment benefits and applications that are worthy of further research.

Carbon-based nanomaterials for targeted cancer nanotherapy: recent trends and future prospects

Carbon-based nanomaterials are becoming attractive materials due to their unique structural dimensions and promising mechanical, electrical, thermal, optical and chemical characteristics. Carbon nanotubes, graphene, graphene oxide, carbon and graphene quantum dots have numerous applications in diverse areas, including biosensing, drug/gene delivery, tissue engineering, imaging, regenerative medicine, diagnosis, and cancer therapy. Cancer remains one of the major health problems all over the world, and several therapeutic approaches are focussed on designing targeted anticancer drug delivery nanosystems by applying benign and less hazardous resources with high biocompatibility, ease of functionalization, remarkable targeted therapy issues, and low adverse effects. This review highlights the recent development on these carbon based-nanomaterials in the field of targeted cancer therapy and discusses their possible and promising diagnostic and therapeutic applications for the treatment of cancers.

Methods to Scale Down Graphene Oxide Size and Size Implication in Anti-cancer Applications

Despite considerable progress in the comprehension of the mechanisms involved in the origin and development of cancer, with improved diagnosis and treatment, this disease remains a major public health challenge with a considerable impact on the social and economic system, as well as on the individual. One way to improve effectiveness and reduce side effects is to consider responsive stimuli delivery systems that provide tailor-made release profiles with excellent spatial and temporal control. 2D nanomaterials possess special physicochemical properties (e.g., light, ultrasonic and magnetic responses) and biological behaviors such as endocytosis, biodistribution, biodegradation, and excretory pathways, which lead to their use in various biomedical applications. In particular, among 2D nanomaterials, graphene and its derivatives, namely graphene oxide (GO) nanomaterials, have attracted enormous attention in cancer diagnosis and therapy because they combine, in a unique material, extremely small size, NIR absorption, delocalized electrons, extremely high surface area, and versatile surface functionality. Taking into account the fundamental role played by GO size, in this review, we summarize the main methods employed to reduce and homogenize in nanometric scale the lateral dimensions of graphene oxide produced by chemical exfoliation of graphite, as well as post-synthesis separation techniques to uniform the size. We also discuss the implication of the small size in cancer treatment by exploiting GO nanocarriers as an effective theranostic tool.

Applications of Graphene and Graphene Oxide in Smart Drug/Gene Delivery: Is the World Still Flat?

Graphene, a wonder material, has made far-reaching developments in many different fields such as materials science, electronics, condensed physics, quantum physics, energy systems, etc. Since its discovery in 2004, extensive studies have been done for understanding its physical and chemical properties. Owing to its unique characteristics, it has rapidly became a potential candidate for nano-bio researchers to explore its usage in biomedical applications. In the last decade, remarkable efforts have been devoted to investigating the biomedical utilization of graphene and graphene-based materials, especially in smart drug and gene delivery as well as cancer therapy. Inspired by a great number of successful graphene-based materials integrations into the biomedical area, here we summarize the most recent developments made about graphene applications in biomedicine. In this paper, we review the up-to-date advances of graphene-based materials in drug delivery applications, specifically targeted drug/ gene delivery, delivery of antitumor drugs, controlled and stimuli-responsive drug release, photodynamic therapy applications and optical imaging and theranostics, as well as investigating the future trends and succeeding challenges in this topic to provide an outlook for future researches.

Graphene quantum dots in photodynamic therapy

Graphene quantum dots (GQDs) have shown great promise in a variety of medical applications. Recently, it has been found that GQDs are also beneficial for photodynamic therapy (PDT). However, the findings of GQDs as PDT agents have been controversial in the literature. Herein, we investigate the photoactivity of single-atomic-layered GQDs by examining their ability to generate singlet oxygen (1O2) under irradiation and their effects on the photoactivity of photosensitizers. We demonstrate that the GQDs with lateral sizes of ∼5 or 20 nm are photo-inactive for they cannot generate 1O2 under irradiation of either a 660 nm laser (105 mW cm-2) or a halogen light. Moreover, the GQDs inhibit the photoactivity of two classical photosensitizers, namely, methylene blue and methylene violet. The stronger interaction between the GQDs and the photosensitizer results in greater inhibition of GQDs. Besides, the large-sized GQDs exhibit stronger inhibition than the small-sized GQDs. The inhibitory effect of the GQDs on the photoactivity of photosensitizers is consistent with their photo-cytotoxicity. These results indicate that the single-atomic-layered GQDs are not potential PDT agents, but they may be helpful for photosensitizers by delivering them into the cells. The discrepancy between the current work and the literature is probably associated with the GQDs used.

Facile preparation of pH-sensitive chitosan microspheres for delivery of curcumin; characterization, drug release kinetics and evaluation of anticancer activity

Curcumin (CUR) is a lowly water-soluble natural polyphenol with chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic activities. Hence, to achieve the system with good CUR loading ability, porous MIL-88 (Fe) was prepared in the presence of the presynthesized graphene quantum dots (GQDs) (GQDs@MIL-88 (Fe)). In the following, CUR loaded in the fabricated GQDs@MIL-88 (Fe) nanohybrid. The characterization techniques; Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), photoluminescence (PL), and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) analysis showed success in the synthesis of GQDs@MIL-88 (Fe). Moreover, the FT-IR analysis displayed the loading of CUR and the formation of CUR@GQDs@MIL-88(Fe). Chitosan (CS) was used as a green coating to enhance the biocompatibility of the prepared system (CS/CUR@GQDs@MIL-88(Fe). The fabricated microspheres showed pH-sensitive swelling behavior and released 38.3% of CUR in pH 5.0 which is better fitted with the First-order kinetic model (R² = 0.9726). In comparison with CUR@GQDs@MIL-88(Fe), the MTT and DAPI assay exhibited less toxic effect for CS/CUR@GQDs@MIL-88(Fe) against MDA-MB 231 cells. Moreover, the safety of the CS/CUR@GQDs@MIL-88(Fe) confirmed after incubation against MCF 10A as a model of the normal cell line. The results conveyed a new concept that the CS/CUR@GQDs@MIL-88(Fe) is a potential candidate for using as a biocompatible carrier with controlled drug delivery ability.

Direct incorporation of nano graphene oxide (nGO) into hydrophobic drug crystals for enhanced aqueous dissolution

This paper reports the development of a successful anti-solvent method that incorporates colloidal nano scale graphene oxide (nGO) directly into hydrophobic drug crystals. The nGO dispersed in solution acted as nucleating sites for crystallization and were embedded into the drug crystals without altering its structure or physical properties such as melting point. Several composites of drugs Sulfamethoxazole and Griseofulvin were synthesized with nGO concentration ranging between 0.2 and 1.0 %. The presence of nGO dramatically enhanced the dissolution rate. The time needed to reach a 50 % release (T50) reduced from 42-14 min with the integration of 0.8 % nGO in SMZ, while in GF the reduction was from 44-27 min with 0.5 % nGO. Increased release rates are attributed to the presence of the hydrophilic nGO which hydrogen bond more so with the aqueous mediums. Therefore, the incorporation of nGO into poorly soluble drugs is an effective approach towards drug delivery and bioavailability improvement and opens a new approach to high performance drug delivery.

Graphene oxide based functionalized chitosan polyelectrolyte nanocomposite for targeted and pH responsive drug delivery

Graphene oxide (GO) was first modified to amine functionalized GO (AGO) and acts as a cationic polyelectrolyte. Chitosan (CS) was conjugated with folic acid (FA) through N, N´ -Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide coupling to form FA-CS. After this, itaconic acid and acrylic acid monomers are grafted to the hydroxyl group of CS using ethyleneglycol dimethacrylate as cross linker and potassium peroxydisulfate as an initiator to generate -COOH functional groups and forming chemically modified chitosan (CMCS). Further doxorubicin (DOX) loaded into the FA-CMCS/AGO through π-π stacking interactions. The resulting nanocomposite was characterized by FTIR, SEM, TEM, Raman, AFM, DLS and ZP. The drug loading capacity was as high as 95.0% and the drug release rate at pH 5.3 was significantly higher than that under physiological conditions of pH 7.4. Cell viability of L929, HeLa and MCF7 cells was studied. The studies suggest the drug carrier has potential clinical applications for anticancer drug delivery.

Design of highly porous Fe3O4@reduced graphene oxide via a facile PMAA-induced assembly

Advances in the synthesis and processing of graphene-based materials have presented the opportunity to design novel lithium-ion battery (LIB) anode materials that can meet the power requirements of next-generation power devices. In this work, a poly(methacrylic acid) (PMAA)-induced self-assembly process was used to design super-mesoporous Fe3O4 and reduced-graphene-oxide (Fe3O4@RGO) anode materials. We demonstrate the relationship between the media pH and Fe3O4@RGO nanostructure, in terms of dispersion state of PMAA-stabilized Fe3O4@GO sheets at different surrounding pH values, and porosity of the resulted Fe3O4@RGO anode. The anode shows a high surface area of 338.8 m2 g-1 with a large amount of 10-40 nm mesopores, which facilitates the kinetics of Li-ions and electrons, and improves electrode durability. As a result, Fe3O4@RGO delivers high specific-charge capacities of 740 mA h g-1 to 200 mA h g-1 at various current densities of 0.5 A g-1 to 10 A g-1, and an excellent capacity-retention capability even after long-term charge-discharge cycles. The PMAA-induced assembly method addresses the issue of poor dispersion of Fe3O4-coated graphene materials-which is a major impediment in the synthesis process-and provides a facile synthetic pathway for depositing Fe3O4 and other metal oxide nanoparticles on highly porous RGO.

Hybrid nanocomposite curcumin-capped gold nanoparticle-reduced graphene oxide: Anti-oxidant potency and selective cancer cytotoxicity

Nanotechnology-based antioxidants and therapeutic agents are believed to be the next generation tools to face the ever-increasing cancer mortality rates. Graphene stands as a preferred nano-therapeutic template, due to the advanced properties and cellular interaction mechanisms. Nevertheless, majority of graphene-based composites suffer from hindered development as efficient cancer therapeutics. Recent nano-toxicology reviews and recommendations emphasize on the preliminary synthetic stages as a crucial element in driving successful applications results. In this study, we present an integrated, green, one-pot hybridization of target-suited raw materials into curcumin-capped gold nanoparticle-conjugated reduced graphene oxide (CAG) nanocomposite, as a prominent anti-oxidant and anti-cancer agent. Distinct from previous studies, the beneficial attributes of curcumin are employed to their fullest extent, such that they perform dual roles of being a natural reducing agent and possessing antioxidant anti-cancer functional moiety. The proposed novel green synthesis approach secured an enhanced structure with dispersed homogenous AuNPs (15.62 ± 4.04 nm) anchored on reduced graphene oxide (rGO) sheets, as evidenced by transmission electron microscopy, surpassing other traditional chemical reductants. On the other hand, safe, non-toxic CAG elevates biological activity and supports biocompatibility. Free radical DPPH inhibition assay revealed CAG antioxidant potential with IC50 (324.1 ± 1.8%) value reduced by half compared to that of traditional citrate-rGO-AuNP nanocomposite (612.1 ± 10.1%), which confirms the amplified multi-potent antioxidant activity. Human colon cancer cell lines (HT-29 and SW-948) showed concentration- and time-dependent cytotoxicity for CAG, as determined by optical microscopy images and WST-8 assay, with relatively low IC50 values (~100 μg/ml), while preserving biocompatibility towards normal human colon (CCD-841) and liver cells (WRL-68), with high selectivity indices (≥ 2.0) at all tested time points. Collectively, our results demonstrate effective green synthesis of CAG nanocomposite, free of additional stabilizing agents, and its bioactivity as an antioxidant and selective anti-colon cancer agent.

Carbon-Based Nanomaterials for Biomedical Applications: A Recent Study

The study of carbon-based nanomaterials (CBNs) for biomedical applications has attracted great attention due to their unique chemical and physical properties including thermal, mechanical, electrical, optical and structural diversity. With the help of these intrinsic properties, CBNs, including carbon nanotubes (CNT), graphene oxide (GO), and graphene quantum dots (GQDs), have been extensively investigated in biomedical applications. This review summarizes the most recent studies in developing of CBNs for various biomedical applications including bio-sensing, drug delivery and cancer therapy.

Graphene-Based Smart Platforms for Combined Cancer Therapy

The extensive research of graphene and its derivatives in biomedical applications during the past few years has witnessed its significance in the field of nanomedicine. Starting from simple drug delivery systems, the application of graphene and its derivatives has been extended to a versatile platform of multiple therapeutic modalities, including photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy, magnetic hyperthermia therapy, and sonodynamic therapy. In addition to monotherapy, graphene-based materials are widely applied in combined therapies for enhanced anticancer activity and reduced side effects. In particular, graphene-based materials are often designed and fabricated as "smart" platforms for stimuli-responsive nanocarriers, whose therapeutic effects can be activated by the tumor microenvironment, such as acidic pH and elevated glutathione (termed as "endogenous stimuli"), or light, magnetic, or ultrasonic stimuli (termed as "exogenous stimuli"). Herein, the recent advances of smart graphene platforms for combined therapy applications are presented, starting with the principle for the design of graphene-based smart platforms in combined therapy applications. Next, recent advances of combined therapies contributed by graphene-based materials, including chemotherapy-based, photothermal-therapy-based, and ultrasound-therapy-based synergistic therapy, are outlined. In addition, current challenges and future prospects regarding this promising field are discussed.

Applications of graphene oxide in case of nanomedicines and nanocarriers for biomolecules: review study

In this Review article, recent progress in matter of graphene oxide (GO) synthesis and its functionalization via a vast range of materials, including small molecules, polymers, and biomolecules, were reported and systematically summarized in order to overcome the inherent drawbacks of GO nanocarriers and thereby make these nanocarriers suitable for delivering chemotherapeutic agents, genes, and short interfering RNAs. Briefly, this work describes current strategies for the large scale production of GO and modification of graphene-based nanocarriers surfaces through practical chemical approaches, improving their biocompatibility and declining their toxicity. It also describes the most relevant cases of study suitable to demonstrate the role of graphene and graphene derivatives (GD) as nanocarrier for anti-cancer drugs and genes (e.g. miRNAs). Moreover, the controlled release mechanisms within the cell compartments and blood pH for targeted therapeutics release in the acidic environment of tumor cells or in intracellular compartments are mentioned and explored.

Codelivery of Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Drugs by Graphene-Decorated Magnetic Dendrimers

In this study, a nanocarrier was prepared for the codelivery of a hydrophilic drug (doxorubicin) and a hydrophobic drug (curcumin) to cancer cells. In this nanocarrier, the edges of graphene oxide sheets were decorated with a magnetic-functionalized polyamidoamine dendrimer with hydrazone groups at the end of the polymer. The edge functionalization of graphene sheets not only improved the solubility and dispersibility of graphene sheets but also imparted the magnetic properties to the nanocarrier. The resulting nanocarrier was loaded with doxorubicin through the covalent linkage and curcumin through π-π stacking. The nanocarrier showed a pH-sensitive release for both drugs, and the drug release behavior was also improved by the coimmobilization of both drugs. The cytotoxicity assay of nanocarrier showed low toxicity toward MCF-7 cell compared to unmodified graphene oxide, which was attributed to the presence of a magnetic dendrimer. Besides, the drug-loaded nanocarrier was highly toxic for cells even more than for free drugs. The cellular uptake images revealed higher drug internalization for coloaded nanocarrier than for the nanocarrier loaded with one drug alone. All of the results showed that the codelivery of curcumin and doxorubicin in the presence of the nanocarrier was more effective in chemotherapy than the nanocarrier loaded with one drug.

Delivery of Doxorubicin Using Double-Layered Core-Shell Nanocarrier Based on Magnetic Fe3O4 Core and Salep Shells

Herein, we developed a magnetic drug delivery system based on magnetic Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles with double shells of modified salep polysaccharide for the delivery of doxorubicin (Dox). The drug-loaded nanocarrier was synthesized in an easy way, and large amounts of drug molecules were loaded into the nanocarrier. The drug-loaded nanocarrier showed excellent pH responsibility in vitro, and large amounts of Dox were released at lower pH (60% release), whereas the nanocarrier was stable at neutral pH. The hemolysis assay results showed that the nanocarrier has negligible hemolytic effects on human red blood cells and showed good biocompatibility. Moreover, the result of coagulation assays showed that the nanocarrier was not active in any coagulation pathways. Cytotoxicity assays of nanocarrier and drug-loaded nanocarrier toward HeLa cells demonstrated that the nanocarrier has negligible toxicity, whereas the drug-loaded nanocarrier kills more than 90% of cells during 48 h. The flow cytometry analysis also showed that the uptake of drug-loaded nanocarrier into the cancerous cells is time-dependent and higher concentrations of drug internalized into the cells at longer incubation time. On the basis of the results, we suggest that the present nanocarrier can be applicable for in vivo drug delivery as an easy-made and cheap nanocarrier.

Carbon-Based Nanomaterials for Cancer Therapy via Targeting Tumor Microenvironment

Cancer remains one of the major health problems all over the world and conventional therapeutic approaches have failed to attain an effective cure. Tumor microenvironments (TME) present a unique challenge in tumor therapy due to their complex structures and multiple components, which also serve as the soil for tumor growth, development, invasion, and migration. The complex TME includes immune cells, fibrous collagen structures, and tortuous blood vessels, in which conventional therapeutic approaches are rendered useless. State-of-the-art nanotechnologies have potential to cope with the threats of malignant tumors. With unique physiochemical properties, carbon nanomaterials (CNMs), including graphene, fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, and carbon quantum dots, offer opportunities to resolve the hurdles, by targeting not only cancer cells but also the TME. This review summarizes the progress about CNM-based cancer therapy strategies, which mainly focuses on both the treatment for cancer cells and TME-targeted modulation. In the last, the challenges for TME-based therapy via CNMs are discussed, which will be important in guiding current basic research to clinical translation in the future.

Surface modification of graphene oxide with stimuli-responsive polymer brush containing β-cyclodextrin as a pendant group: Preparation, characterization, and evaluation as controlled drug delivery agent

In this work, stimuli-responsive graphene oxide/polymer brush nanocomposites (GPBNs) prepared through the polymerization of acrylic acid (AA), N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAM) and acrylated β-cyclodextrin (Ac-β-CD) from the graphene oxide (GO) surface. The attachment of polymers on the GO surface was approved using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), UV-vis spectroscopy (UV-vis) and thermogravimetric (TGA) analysis. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to observe the morphological change on the GO surface after polymer grafting. Transition electron microscopy (TEM) showed that polymeric brushes were decorated on the GO surface. The growth of polymer brushes on the GO was further confirmed using atomic force microscopy (AFM). Both hydrophilic (doxorubicin, DOX) and hydrophobic (Methotrexate MTX) drugs were co-loaded in the prepared graphene Oxide/Polyacrylated β-cyclodextrin/polyacrylic acid/poly N-isopropylacrylamide brush nanocomposite (GCANBN). Drug releases from GCANBN were studied using UV-vis. MTT assay was used for the evaluation of in-vitro cytotoxicity of GCANBN. The prepared system showed its efficacy as a nanocarrier for both types of drugs.

Graphene Oxide/ZnS:Mn Nanocomposite Functionalized with Folic Acid as a Nontoxic and Effective Theranostic Platform for Breast Cancer Treatment

Nanoparticle-based cancer theranostic agents generally suffer of poor dispersability in biological media, re-agglomeration over time, and toxicity concerns. To address these challenges, we developed a nanocomposite consisting of chemically-reduced graphene oxide combined with manganese-doped zinc sulfide quantum dots and functionalized with folic acid (FA-rGO/ZnS:Mn). We studied the dispersion stability, Doxorubicin (DOX) loading and release efficiency, target specificity, internalization, and biocompatibility of FA-rGO/ZnS:Mn against folate-rich breast cancer cells, and compared to its uncoated counterpart (rGO/ZnS:Mn). The results indicate that DOX is adsorbed on the graphene surface via π⁻π stacking and hydrophobic interaction, with enhanced loading (~35%) and entrapment (~60%) efficiency that are associated to the chelation of DOX and surface Zn2+ ions. DOX release is favored under acidic conditions reaching a release of up to 95% after 70 h. Membrane integrity of the cells assessed by Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release indicate that the surface passivation caused by folic acid (FA) functionalization decreases the strong hydrophobic interaction between the cell membrane wall and the edges/corners of graphene flakes. Chemotherapeutic effect assays reveal that the cancer cell viability was reduced up to ~50% at 3 µg/mL of DOX-FA-rGO/ZnS:Mn exposure, which is more pronounced than those obtained for free DOX at the same doses. Moreover, DOX-rGO/ZnS:Mn did not show any signs of toxicity. An opposite trend was observed for cells that do not overexpress the folate receptors, indicating that FA functionalization endows rGO/ZnS:Mn with an effective ability to discriminate positive folate receptor cancerous cells, enhancing its drug loading/release efficiency as a compact drug delivery system (DDS). This study paves the way for the potential use of functionalized rGO/ZnS:Mn nanocomposite as a platform for targeted cancer treatment.

Design and Development of Graphene Oxide Nanoparticle/Chitosan Hybrids Showing pH-Sensitive Surface Charge-Reversible Ability for Efficient Intracellular Doxorubicin Delivery

A novel graphene oxide nanoparticle (GON)-based drug delivery system containing GONs as carriers of anticancer drugs and chitosan/dimethylmaleic anhydride-modified chitosan (CS/CS-DMMA) as surface charge-reversible shells is fabricated via the classic self-assembly of the deprotonated carboxyl of GONs and the protonated amine of the CS backbone by electrostatic interaction, and CS-DMMA serves as the outmost layer. In this GON-based drug delivery system, the GON cores as desired carriers might adsorb doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX) via the π-π stacking interaction between the large π conjugated structures of GO and the aromatic structure of DOX. Meanwhile, the chitosan-based polyelectrolyte shells served as a smart protection screen to evade the premature release of the as-loaded DOX in normal extracellular condition, and then, the release of DOX was accelerated because of the detachment of chitosan coating at low pH. Furthermore, the re-exposure of amino groups after hydrolysis of CS-DMMA endowed the drug delivery system with positive surface charge by taking advantage of the pH difference between physiological conditions and the tumor microenvironment to enhance the cellular uptake. Then, the pH-dependent site-specific drug release was realized. The in vitro investigations confirmed that these promising GON/CS/CS-DMMA hybrids with the charge-reversible character possessed various merits including excellent encapsulation efficiency, high stability under physiological conditions, enhanced cellular uptake by HepG2 cells, and tunable intracellular chemotherapeutic agent release profiles, proving its capability as an intelligent anticancer agent nanocarrier with enhanced therapeutic effects. This smart GON/CS/CS-DMMA vehicle with the surface charge-reversible character may be used as a significant drug delivery system for cancer treatment.

Physiologically stable F127-GO supramolecular hydrogel with sustained drug release characteristic for chemotherapy and photothermal therapy

The F127-GO-DOX supramolecular hydrogel system with sustained drug release characteristic for chemotherapy and photothermal therapy.