Time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy of human adenosine deaminase: effects of enzyme inhibitors on protein conformation

Contribution of separate tryptophan residues to intrinsic fluorescence of actin. Analysis of 3D structure

The location of tryptophan residues in the actin macromolecule was studied on the basis of the known 3D structure. For every tryptophan residue the polarity and packing density of their microenvironments were evaluated. To estimate the accessibility of the tryptophan residues to the solvent molecules it was proposed to analyze the radial dependence of the packing density of atoms in the macromolecule about the geometric center of the indole rings of the tryptophan residues. The proposed analysis revealed that the microenvironment of tryptophan residues Trp-340 and Trp-356 has a very high density. So these residues can be regarded as internal and inaccessible to solvent molecules. Their microenvironment is mainly formed by non-polar groups of protein. Though the packing density of the Trp-86 microenvironment is lower, this tryptophan residue is apparently also inaccessible to solvent molecules, as it is located in the inner region of macromolecule. Tryptophan residue Trp-79 is external and accessible to the solvent. All residues that can affect tryptophan fluorescence were revealed. It was found that in the close vicinity of tryptophan residues Trp-79 and Trp-86 there are a number of sulfur atoms of cysteine and methionine residues that are known to be effective quenchers of tryptophan fluorescence. The most essential is the location of SG atom of Cys-10 near the NE1 atom of the indole ring of tryptophan residue Trp-86. On the basis of microenvironment analysis of these tryptophan residues and the evaluation of energy transfer between them it was concluded that the contribution of tryptophan residues Trp-79 and Trp-86 must be low. Intrinsic fluorescence of actin must be mainly determined by two other tryptophan residues--Trp-340 and Trp-356. It is possible that the unstrained conformation of tryptophan residue Trp-340 and the existence of aromatic rings of tyrosine and phenylalanine and proline residues in the microenvironments of tryptophan residues Trp-340 and Trp-356 are also essential to their blue fluorescence spectrum.

Effect of a chemical modification on the hydrated adenosine intermediate produced by adenosine deaminase and a model reaction for a potential mechanism of action of 5-aminoimidazole ribonucleotide carboxylase

Using the hydrated adenosine intermediate (6R)-6-amino-1, 6-dihydro-6-hydroxy-9-(beta-D-ribofuranosyl)purine (2) produced by adenosine deaminase (ADA, EC 3.5.4.4) as a starting point, the active site probe and inhibitor platform 5-(formylamino)imidazole riboside (FAIRs, 4) was designed by removal of the-C6(OH)(NH2)-molecular fragment of 2 generated by the early events of the enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis. FAIRs was synthesized directly from the sodium salt of 5-amino-1-(beta-D-ribofuranosyl)imidazole-4-carboxylic acid (CAIR) along a reaction sequence involving a tandem N-formylation/decarboxylation that may have a mechanistic connection to the Escherichia coli purE-catalyzed constitutional isomerization of N5-CAIR to CAIR. The physical and spectral properties of FAIRs were elucidated, its X-ray crystal and NMR solution structures were determined, and its interaction with ADA was investigated. Crystalline FAIRs exists solely as the Z-formamide rotamer and exhibits many of the same intramolecular hydrogen bonding events known to contribute to the association of Ado to ADA. In water and various organic solvents, however, FAIRs exists as NMR-distinct, slowly interconverting Z and E rotamers. This truncated enzymatic tetrahedral intermediate analog was determined to be a competitive inhibitor of ADA with an apparent Ki binding constant of 40 microM, a value quite close to that (33 microM) of the natural substrate's K(m). The actual species selected for binding by ADA, though, is likely the minor hydroxyimino prototropic form of Z-FAIRs possessing a far lower true Ki value. As the structural features of FAIRs appear well-suited to support its use as a template for constructing active site probes of both ADA and AIR carboxylases, a variety of carbohydrate-protected versions of FAIRs suitable for facile aglycon elaborations were synthesized. The N3-alkylation, N3-borane complexation, and C4-iodination of some of these were investigated in order to assess physicochemical properties that may assist in the elucidation of mechanisms for the AIR carboxylases. The survey of these properties taken together with a reasonable mechanism for the model CAIRs-->FAIRs synthetic transformation is interpreted to support a mechanism for the purE-catalyzed N5-CAIR-->CAIR biosynthetic one that involves a carboxylative sp3-rehybridization of the imidazole C4 atom rather than one possessing a dipole-stabilized C4 sp2 carbanionic intermediate.

The role of divalent cations in structure and function of murine adenosine deaminase

For murine adenosine deaminase, we have determined that a single zinc or cobalt cofactor bound in a high affinity site is required for catalytic function while metal ions bound at an additional site(s) inhibit the enzyme. A catalytically inactive apoenzyme of murine adenosine deaminase was produced by dialysis in the presence of specific zinc chelators in an acidic buffer. This represents the first production of the apoenzyme and demonstrates a rigorous method for removing the occult cofactor. Restoration to the holoenzyme is achieved with stoichiometric amounts of either Zn2+ or Co2+ yielding at least 95% of initial activity. Far UV CD and fluorescence spectra are the same for both the apo- and holoenzyme, providing evidence that removal of the cofactor does not alter secondary or tertiary structure. The substrate binding site remains functional as determined by similar quenching measured by tryptophan fluorescence of apo- or holoenzyme upon mixing with the transition state analog, deoxycoformycin. Excess levels of adenosine or N6- methyladenosine incubated with the apoenzyme prior to the addition of metal prevent restoration, suggesting that the cofactor adds through the substrate binding cleft. The cations Ca2+, Cd2+, Cr2+, Cu+, Cu2+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Pb2+, or Mg2+ did not restore adenosine deaminase activity to the apoenzyme. Mn2+, Cu2+, and Zn2+ were found to be competitive inhibitors of the holoenzyme with respect to substrate and Cd2+ and Co2+ were noncompetitive inhibitors. Weak inhibition (Ki > or = 1000 microM) was noted for Ca2+, Fe2+, and Fe3+.

Topoisomerase I activity and cellular response to radiation in Chinese hamster cells

The aim of the present study was to investigate the synergistic potential of the combination of camptothecin, a specific inhibitor of topoisomerase I, and radiation in the the induction of chromosome aberrations and cell cycle delay in actively proliferating mammalian cells. Synergistic effects of the combined treatments were obtained for induced frequencies of aberrations in exponentially growing Chinese hamster ovary cells. The potentiating effects were more pronounced for aberrations of the exchange type, suggesting that interaction of unrepaired radiation- and camptothecin-induced lesions during replication may be involved in the observed drug-radiation synergism. Cytofluorimetric analysis of cell cycle progression in cells receiving the combined treatments displayed enhanced responses of CHO cells to S- and G2 phase delay induced by the single treatments. To investigate the determinants of the synergistic response, the influence of radiation exposure on the catalytic activity of topoisomerase I was assayed. A decreased plasmid supercoiled DNA relaxation capacity of crude extracts derived from irradiated CHO cells was found which suggests a decrease in the topoisomerase I catalytic activity following irradiation. In addition, a lower sensitivity of the enzyme from irradiated cells to inhibition of topoisomerase I activity by camptothecin was also observed using the same DNA relaxation test.

Conformational changes induced in herpes simplex virus DNA polymerase upon DNA binding

Herpesvirus DNA polymerases are prototypes for alpha-like DNA polymerases and important targets for antiherpesvirus drugs. We have investigated changes in the catalytic subunit of herpes simplex virus DNA polymerase following DNA binding by using the techniques of endogeneous fluorescence quenching and limited proteolysis. The fluorescence studies revealed a reduction in the rate of quenching by acrylamide in the presence of DNA without changes in the wavelength of the emission peak or in the lifetime of the fluorophore, consistent with the possibility of conformational changes. Strikingly, the proteolysis studies revealed that binding to a variety of natural and synthetic DNA and RNA molecules induced the appearance of a new cleavage site for trypsin near residue 1060 of the protein and increased cleavage by trypsin near the center of the protein. The extent of these cleavages correlated with the affinity of the polymerase for these ligands. These data provide strong evidence that binding to nucleic acid polymers induces substantial localized conformational changes in the polymerase. The locations of enhanced tryptic cleavage near sites implicated in substrate recognition and interaction with a processivity factor suggest that the conformational changes are important for catalysis and processivity of this prototype alpha-like DNA polymerase. Inhibition of these changes may provide a mechanism for antiherpesvirus drugs.

Kinetics of inhibition of calf intestinal adenosine deaminase by (+)- and (-)-erythro-9-(2-hydroxy-3-nonyl)adenine

The enantiomers of erythro-9-(2-hydroxy-3-nonyl)adenine [(+)- and (-)-EHNA) bound to adenosine deaminase (ADA) at pH 7 with concomitant changes in the optical properties of the enzyme. The association rate constant for (+)-EHNA was 2.9 x 10(6) M-1 s-1 and that for (-)-EHNA was 6.4 x 10(6) M-1 s-1. The dissociation of (-)-EHNA.ADA or (+)-EHNA.ADA in the presence of excess coformycin was monitored by the quenching of enzyme fluorescence as coformycin.ADA was formed. The dissociation rate constants of (+)- and (-)-EHNA.ADA were 0.0054 s-1 and 2.7 s-1, respectively. A similar value for the dissociation rate constant (0.005 s-1) for (+)-EHNA.ADA was calculated from the time course for the appearance of catalytic activity after dilution of (+)-EHNA.ADA into 100 microM adenosine. The Ki values of ADA for (+)- and (-)-EHNA were similar to the dissociation constants calculated from the ratio of the respective dissociation and association rate constants. The biphasic time-dependent inhibition of the catalytic activity of ADA by (+/- )-EHNA [Frieden, C., Kurz, L. C., & Gilbert, H. R. (1980) Biochemistry 19, 5303-5309] was confirmed. However, the catalytic activity of ADA was inhibited monophasically by (+)-EHNA. Thus, the biphasic nature of the time course for inhibition of ADA by (+/- )-EHNA was the result of the presence of both enantiomers of the inhibitor in this assay. These kinetic data were interpreted in terms of single-step mechanisms for binding of (+)- and (-)-EHNA.

Time-resolved fluorescence studies of genetically engineered Escherichia coli glutamine synthetase. Effects of ATP on the tryptophan-57 loop

Single-tryptophan-containing mutants of low adenylation state Escherichia coli glutamine synthetase (wild type has two tryptophans at positions 57 and 158) have been constructed and studied by multifrequency phase/modulation fluorescence spectroscopy. The W57L mutant (retains tryptophan at residue 158) and the W158S mutant (retains tryptophan at residue 57) are both characterized by heterogeneous exponential decay kinetics. Global analysis indicates that for the Mn-bound form of the enzyme at pH 7.4 the fluorescence of both tryptophans is best described by a sum of three discrete expontials with recovered lifetimes of 4.77, 1.72, and 0.10 ns for Trp-57 and 5.04, 2.28, and 0.13 ns for Trp-158. The wild-type enzyme also exhibits decay kinetics described by a triple-exponential model with similar lifetime components. The individual tryptophans are distinguishable by the fractional intensities of the resolvable lifetimes. The wild-type and W158S enzymes are dominated by the 5-ns component which provides nearly 60% and 65%, respectively, of the fractional intensity at five wavelengths spanning the emission spectrum. In contrast, the W57L enzyme demonstrates a larger fraction of the 2-ns lifetime species (60%) and only 35% of the longer lifetime component. The substrate ATP induces a shift to approximately 90% of the 5-ns component for the wild-type and W158S enzymes, whereas the W57L protein is essentially unaffected by this ligand. Steady-state quenching studies with iodide indicate that addition of ATP results in a 3.0-3.5-fold decrease in the apparent Stern-Volmer quenching constants for the wild-type and W158S enzymes. Phase/modulation experiments at several iodide concentrations indicate that the median, 2 ns, lifetime component is selectively quenched compared to the 5-ns lifetime component. These results suggest a model where ATP binding results in a shift in the equilibrium distribution of microconformational states populated by Trp-57. ATP shifts this equilibrium nearly completely to the states exhibiting the long-lifetime component which, based on quenching studies, is less solvent-accessible than the conformational states associated with the other lifetime components.

Efficient, low-cost protein factories: expression of human adenosine deaminase in baculovirus-infected insect larvae

Human adenosine deaminase (EC 3.5.4.4), a key purine salvage enzyme essential for immune competence, has been overproduced in Spodoptera frugiperda cells and in Trichoplusia ni (cabbage looper) larvae infected with recombinant baculovirus. The coding sequence of human adenosine deaminase was recombined into a baculovirus immediately downstream from the strong polyhedrin gene promoter. Approximately 60 hr after infection of insect cells with the recombinant virus, maximal levels of intracellular adenosine deaminase mRNA, protein, and enzymatic activity were detected. The recombinant human adenosine deaminase represented 10% of the total cellular protein and exhibited a specific activity of 70 units/mg of protein in crude homogenate. This specific activity is 70-350 times greater than that exhibited by the enzyme in homogenates of the two most abundant natural sources of human adenosine deaminase, thymus and leukemic cells. When the recombinant virus was injected into insect larvae, the maximum recombinant enzyme was produced 4 days postinfection and represented about 2% of the total insect protein with a specific activity of 10-25 units/mg of protein. The recombinant human adenosine deaminase was purified to homogeneity from both insect cells and larvae and demonstrated to be identical to native adenosine deaminase purified from human cells with respect to molecular weight, interaction with polyclonal anti-adenosine deaminase antibody, and enzymatic properties. A pilot purification yielded 8-9 mg of homogeneous enzyme from 22 larvae. The production of large quantities of recombinant human adenosine deaminase in insect larvae is inexpensive and rapid and eliminates the need for specialized facilities for tissue culture. This method should be applicable to large-scale production of many recombinant proteins.

Laser photobleaching leads to a fluorescence grade adenosine deaminase

The enzyme adenosine deaminase (adenosine aminohydrolase EC 3.5.4.4) from calf intestinal mucosa is commercially available at high purity grade yet, at the sensitivity at which fluorescence studies may be undertaken, a nonpeptidic fluorescence is detectable at lambda exmax = 350 nm and lambda emmax = 420 nm. A sevenfold decrease of this nonpeptidic fluorescence was obtained upon irradiation by the third harmonic (355 nm) of a Nd:YAG laser for 16 min, at 5 mJ/pulse, with a pulse width of 6 ns at a repetition rate of 10 Hz. The decline of fluorescence was accompanied by a negligible loss of enzymatic activity. Moreover, the integrity of the protein was ascertained by (i) its fluorescence (lambda exmax = 305 nm, lambda emmax = 335 nm) and lifetime distribution and (ii) its kinetics in the presence of the substrate adenosine and two inhibitors, all of which remained essentially unaltered. Laser photobleaching is a simple way to achieve a fluorescence grade adenosine deaminase.