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Dallas DC, Murray NM, Gan J. Proteolytic Systems in Milk: Perspectives on the Evolutionary Function within the Mammary Gland and the Infant. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2015; 20:133-47. [PMID: 26179272 PMCID: PMC4637187 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-015-9334-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2014] [Accepted: 07/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Milk contains elements of numerous proteolytic systems (zymogens, active proteases, protease inhibitors and protease activators) produced in part from blood, in part by mammary epithelial cells and in part by immune cell secretion. Researchers have examined milk proteases for decades, as they can cause major defects in milk quality and cheese production. Most previous research has examined these proteases with the aim to eliminate or control their actions. However, our recent peptidomics research demonstrates that these milk proteases produce specific peptides in healthy milk and continue to function within the infant's gastrointestinal tract. These findings suggest that milk proteases have an evolutionary function in aiding the infant's digestion or releasing functional peptides. In other words, the mother provides the infant with not only dietary proteins but also the means to digest them. However, proteolysis in the milk is controlled by a balance of protease inhibitors and protease activators so that only a small portion of milk proteins are digested within the mammary gland. This regulation presents a question: If proteolysis is beneficial to the infant, what benefits are gained by preventing complete proteolysis through the presence of protease inhibitors? In addition to summarizing what is known about milk proteolytic systems, we explore possible evolutionary explanations for this proteolytic balance.
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Affiliation(s)
- David C Dallas
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
- Foods for Health Institute, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
| | - Niamh M Murray
- Institute of Food and Health, School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Junai Gan
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
- Foods for Health Institute, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
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Esnouf MP, Macfarlane RG. Enzymology and the blood clotting mechanism. ADVANCES IN ENZYMOLOGY AND RELATED AREAS OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2006; 30:255-315. [PMID: 4873442 DOI: 10.1002/9780470122754.ch6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Segal I, Chaloner C, Douglas J, John KD, Zaidi A, Cotter L, Appelros S, Borgström A, Braganza JM. Acute pancreatitis in Soweto, South Africa: relationship between trypsinogen load, trypsinogen activation, and fibrinolysis. Am J Gastroenterol 2002; 97:883-92. [PMID: 12003423 DOI: 10.1111/j.1572-0241.2002.05604.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE It is not known why acute pancreatitis in Soweto, South Africa, pursues an aggressive course. We sought clues from circulating trypsinogen load at admission as marker of initial acinar injury, trypsinogen activation using the carboxypeptidase B activation peptide as surrogate, proteinase inhibitors, the coagulation-fibrinolysis axis, indicators of inflammation, oxidative stress markers, and antioxidant status. This article reports on the first four aspects. METHODS The study involved 24 consecutive patients with a first attack. All of them were admitted within 24 h, and 22 were alcoholic. Urine was analyzed for anionic trypsinogen and the carboxypeptidase B activation peptide. Serum was tested for anionic and cationic trypsinogen, alpha1 proteinase inhibitor and alpha2 macroglobulin. Plasma from a subset was assayed for soluble fibrin, cross-linked fibrin degradation products (surrogates for thrombin and plasmin activity, respectively), and tissue-type plasminogen activator and inhibitor. RESULTS Soweto controls had higher serum anionic trypsinogen (p = 0.004) and plasminogen activator:inhibitor ratio (p = 0.047) than U.K. controls. The outcome of acute pancreatitis was mild in 17 but severe in seven with three deaths, two on day 2. In mild pancreatitis, intense plasmin activity (p < 0.001) accompanied the surge in trypsinogen, especially anionic (p < 0.001), but without increased thrombin activity and in five patients without trypsinogen activation. In severe pancreatitis, further significant increments in plasmin activity and trypsinogens were accompanied by increased thrombin activity (p = 0.013) and trypsinogen activation (p = 0.046). There was no correlation between surrogates of plasmin and thrombin activity, or between either and the carboxypeptidase B activation peptide, which showed a curvilinear relationship to total serum trypsinogen. CONCLUSIONS The aggressive nature of alcoholic acute pancreatitis in Soweto seems to reflect early profound fibrinolysis, which precedes coagulation and is initially independent of trypsin. Subclinical acinar-cell injury and a profibrinolytic diathesis in outwardly healthy Sowetans may predispose to this problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isidor Segal
- Gastrointestinal Unit, Chris Hani Baragwanath Hospital, Johannesburg, South Africa
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Cole TC, Melrose J, Ghosh P. Isolation and characterisation of a neutral proteinase from the canine intervertebral disc. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1989; 990:254-62. [PMID: 2923905 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-4165(89)80042-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
A neutral proteinase of 94 kDa capable of degrading gelatin, canine disc proteoglycan, and L-lysine and L-arginine peptide substrates has been isolated from the greyhound intervertebral disc. Strong inhibition of this proteinase with class-specific inhibitors, such as APMSF, TLCK and benzamidine indicated a 'serine'-type specificity. Metallo, aspartyl- and cysteine proteinase inhibitors were devoid of significant action. Degradation of the resident canine disc proteoglycan monomer by the disc proteinase was shown to occur at the hyaluronic acid binding region, thereby diminishing its ability to aggregate with hyaluronic acid. The hydrodynamic size of the proteoglycan degradation products was only slightly less than that of the intact disc proteoglycan subunits.
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Affiliation(s)
- T C Cole
- Raymond Purves Research Laboratories, University of Sydney, St. Leonards, Australia
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Melrose J, Ghosh P, Taylor TK. Neutral proteinases of the human intervertebral disc. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1987; 923:483-95. [PMID: 3548828 DOI: 10.1016/0304-4165(87)90058-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Disc tissue consisting of pooled annuli fibrosus and nuclei pulposus from the cadaver of an adolescent aged 19 years was extracted with 4.0 M Gu-HCl. Proteins of low buoyant density (p less than or equal to 1.38 g/ml) containing the disc enzymes and inhibitors were separated from proteoglycans of high buoyant density (p greater than or equal to 1.50 g/ml) by density gradient ultracentrifugation. Sephadex G-75F gel chromatography followed by trypsin affinity chromatography was then used to resolve disc proteolytic and trypsin inhibitory activities. The results obtained were strongly suggestive of the presence of a high molecular weight zymogen which upon activation generated a population of smaller molecular weight proteinases. The disc proteinases obtained by this process showed similar properties in terms of: their pH optima (7.4-7.6); their inhibition patterns by class-specific proteinase inhibitors; their variation of activity as a function of NaCl and lysine concentrations; and the hydrodynamic size of their proteoglycan degradation products. The activated disc neutral proteinase demonstrated many characteristics in common with plasmin; however, unlike the latter, the disc proteinases also showed some calcium dependence.
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Rinderknecht H. Activation of pancreatic zymogens. Normal activation, premature intrapancreatic activation, protective mechanisms against inappropriate activation. Dig Dis Sci 1986; 31:314-21. [PMID: 2936587 DOI: 10.1007/bf01318124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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Kinetics of activation of human plasminogen by different activator species at pH 7.4 and 37 degrees C. J Biol Chem 1980. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)85983-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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Clark JA, Finelli RE, Netsky MG. Disseminated intravascular coagulation following cranial trauma. Case report. J Neurosurg 1980; 52:266-9. [PMID: 7351570 DOI: 10.3171/jns.1980.52.2.0266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Cranial and spinal trauma resulted in disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) in a 78-year-old man, causing widespread bleeding and incoagulable blood. Traumatized brain tissue was found in the lumina of dural venous sinuses. The mechanisms of DIC are reviewed. It is suggested that intravascular release of potent cerebral thromboplastin contributed to the severity of DIC in this patient, by causing activation of the extrinsic clotting system. Intrasinus brain tissue in cases of human trauma has not previously been reported.
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Borgström A, Ohlsson K. Studies on the activation of canine trypsinogens in vitro. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1979; 571:284-93. [PMID: 92342 DOI: 10.1016/0005-2744(79)90098-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The activation of canine anionic and cationic trypsinogen by enterokinase, trypsin, thrombin, plasmin and extracts from canine granulocytes were studied in vitro. Enterokinase activates both trypsinogens about 1000 times faster than trypsin. The enterokinase-catalyzed activation is not inhibited by the main serum protease inhibitors, alpha-macroglobulin and alpha 1-antitrypsin. alpha-Macroglobulin cannot inhibit the activation of the trypsinogens by trypsin but this reaction is completely inhibited by alpha 1-antitrypsin. The results are discussed in relation to the pathogenesis of acute pancreatitis.
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Fenton JW, Fasco MJ, Stackrow AB. Human thrombins. Production, evaluation, and properties of alpha-thrombin. J Biol Chem 1977. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)40293-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 423] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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Chou IN, O'Donnell SP, Black PH, Roblin RO. Cell density-dependent secretion of plasminogen activator by 3T3 cells. J Cell Physiol 1977; 91:31-7. [PMID: 404303 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.1040910104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The expression of extracellular fibrinolytic activity in untransformed 3T3 cell cultures depends on the growth state of the cells. Actively growing 3T3 cultures exhibit a relatively high level of fibrinolysis, which decreases progressively as the cells become confluent and density-inhibited. The low level of fibrinolytic activity in confluent 3T3 cultures is due to a diminution in secretion of plasminogen activator since the intracellular level of plasminogen activator remains high. The amount of plasminogen activator observed in growing 3T3 cultures varies depending upon whether the cells are passaged with trypsin/EDTA solution, or with Ca++ selective chelating agent, ethylene-bis (oxyethylenenitrilo) tetraacetic acid (EGTA). However, in cells passaged using either agent, the amount of plasminogen activator secreted is always greatest when the cells are actively growing and decreases thereafter. In contrast to confluent 3T3 cultures, dense cultures of SV40-virus transformed 3T3 cells continued to secrete relatively large amounts of plasminogen activator. The ability to decrease secretion of plasminogen activator as cells become dense may be an important characteristic of cells which demonstrate density-dependent inhibition of cell multiplication in vitro.
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Abstract
Stress, including trauma and sepsis, is associated with a state of hypercoagulability. In these circumstances the patient is at risk of generalized or local thrombotic complications. New laboratory investigative procedures facilitate diagnosis and permit improved assessment of therapy, which at present remains of unproven efficacy both in the general and local situation.
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Carvalho AC, Lees RS, Vaillancourt RA, Cabral RB, Weinberg RM, Colman RW. Intravascular coagulation in hyperlipidemia. Thromb Res 1976; 8:843-57. [PMID: 183307 DOI: 10.1016/0049-3848(76)90013-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Robin R, Chou IN, Black PH. Proteolytic enzymes, cell surface changes, and viral transformation. Adv Cancer Res 1976; 22:203-60. [PMID: 175646 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-230x(08)60178-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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The importance of the preactivation peptide in the two-stage mechanism of human plasminogen activation. J Biol Chem 1975. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)41141-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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Teng NN, Bo Chen L. The role of surface proteins in cell proliferation as studied with thrombin and other proteases. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1975; 72:413-7. [PMID: 1054823 PMCID: PMC432321 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.72.2.413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
This communication explores the capacity of different proteases to stimulate DNA synthesis in resting chick embryo fibroblasts and to cause the removal of cell membrane proteins previosly postulated as important in the regulation of growth and division of cells. Thrombin, a highly specific protease and a known mitogen, was incubated with chick embryo fibroblasts, and analysis was made of the cell membrane proteins. Of particular interest were a protein of molecular weight 250,000, which is known to be readily removed by the action of trypsin and is not present in most transformed cells, and two other proteins, which are reduced in amount in transformed as compared to confluent resting cell cultures. None of these three proteins was removed by thrombin when the latter was added to confluent cells in concentrations sufficient to cause significant increase in DNA synthesis twelve hours after stimulation by the protease. The presence or absence of these proteins in the membranes of confluent resting or transformed cells of chick embryo fibroblasts does not seem to be directly related to the process of regulation of DNA synthesis and cellular division.
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Brecher AS, Howe WF, Burkholder JS, Burkholder DE. An evaluation of the utility of benzoyl-DL-arginine-beta-naphthyl-amide for the assay of thrombin activity in blood. Thromb Res 1974; 5:157-71. [PMID: 4471994 DOI: 10.1016/0049-3848(74)90065-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Geokas MC, Rinderknecht H. Free proteolytic enzymes in pancreatic juice of patients with acute pancreatitis. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DIGESTIVE DISEASES 1974; 19:591-8. [PMID: 4835329 DOI: 10.1007/bf01073012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Mayer M, Khassis S, Shafrir E. Determination of trypsin by its accelerating effect on the onset of trypsinogen activation. Anal Biochem 1974; 58:25-9. [PMID: 4825378 DOI: 10.1016/0003-2697(74)90436-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Ratnoff OD. The Physiology of Blood Coagulation. Blood 1974. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-595705-2.50008-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
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Robbins KC, Bernabe P, Arzadon L, Summaria L. NH2-Terminal Sequences of Mammalian Plasminogens and Plasmin S-Carboxymethyl Heavy (A) and Light (B) Chain Derivatives. J Biol Chem 1973. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)43384-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Boguslaski RC, Smith RS, Mhatre NS. Applications of bound biopolymers in enzymology and immunology. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 1972; 58:1-68. [PMID: 4559087 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-65357-5_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Ganguly P. Isolation and Properties of a Thrombin-sensitive Protein from Human Blood Platelets. J Biol Chem 1971. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)62083-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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9 Thrombin and Prothrombin. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1971. [DOI: 10.1016/s1874-6047(08)60400-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
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Abita JP, Delaage M, Lazdunski M. The mechanism of activation of trypsinogen. The role of the four N-terminal aspartyl residues. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1969; 8:314-24. [PMID: 5816755 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1969.tb00530.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Lanchantin GF, Friedmann JA, Hart DW. Interaction of Soybean Trypsin Inhibitor with Thrombin and Its Effect on Prothrombin Activation. J Biol Chem 1969. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)91866-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Gans H, Subramanian V, John S, Castaneda AR, Lillehei CW. Theoretical and practical (clinical) considerations concerning proteolytic enzymes and their inhibitors with particular reference to changes in the plasminogen-plasmin system observed during assisted circulation in man. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1968; 146:721-36. [PMID: 4239441 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1968.tb20331.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Braun WE, Merrill JP. Urine fibrinogen fragments in human renal allografts. A possible mechanism of renal injury. N Engl J Med 1968; 278:1366-71. [PMID: 4231285 DOI: 10.1056/nejm196806202782503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Abstract
The clearance of different metabolic products derived from two plasma proteins, prothrombin and fibrinogen, was studied with the aid of the isolated, perfused rat liver. Active thrombin and fibrin were rapidly cleared by the Kupffer cells. Inactive thrombin and a partially degraded fibrin molecule were also cleared but at much slower rates. This difference in clearance rates suggests the presence of a high degree of selectivity in the clearance of altered plasma proteins.
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Davey MG, Lüscher EF. Actions of thrombin and other coagulant and proteolytic enzymes on blood platelets. Nature 1967; 216:857-8. [PMID: 6074962 DOI: 10.1038/216857a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 246] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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Gans H, Castaneda AR, Subramanian V, John S, Lillehei CW. Problems in hemostasis during open heart surgery. IX. Changes observed in the plasminogen-plasmin system and their significance for therapy. Ann Surg 1967; 166:980-6. [PMID: 4228752 PMCID: PMC1477492 DOI: 10.1097/00000658-196712000-00015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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