Voltammetric studies of the catalytic mechanism of the respiratory nitrate reductase from Escherichia coli: how nitrate reduction and inhibition depend on the oxidation state of the active site

Selective Reduction of Aqueous Nitrate to Ammonium with an Electropolymerized Chromium Molecular Catalyst

Nitrate (NO3-) is a common nitrogen-containing contaminant in agricultural, industrial, and low-level nuclear wastewater that causes significant environmental damage. In this work, we report a bioinspired Cr-based molecular catalyst incorporated into a redox polymer that selectively and efficiently reduces aqueous NO3- to ammonium (NH4+), a desirable value-added fertilizer component and industrial precursor, at rates of ∼0.36 mmol NH4+ mgcat-1 h-1 with >90% Faradaic efficiency for NH4+. The NO3- reduction reaction occurs through a cascade catalysis mechanism involving the stepwise reduction of NO3- to NH4+ via observed NO2- and NH2OH intermediates. To our knowledge, this is one of the first examples of a molecular catalyst, homogeneous or heterogenized, that is reported to reduce aqueous NO3- to NH4+ with rates and Faradaic efficiencies comparable to those of state-of-the-art solid-state electrocatalysts. This work highlights a promising and previously unexplored area of electrocatalyst research using polymer-catalyst composites containing complexes with oxophilic transition metal active sites for electrochemical nitrate remediation with nutrient recovery.

Nitrate-Stimulated Release of Naturally Occurring Sedimentary Uranium

Groundwater uranium (U) concentrations have been measured above the U.S. EPA maximum contaminant level (30 μg/L) in many U.S. aquifers, including in areas not associated with anthropogenic contamination by milling or mining. In addition to carbonate, nitrate has been correlated to uranium groundwater concentrations in two major U.S. aquifers. However, to date, direct evidence that nitrate mobilizes naturally occurring U from aquifer sediments has not been presented. Here, we demonstrate that the influx of high-nitrate porewater through High Plains alluvial aquifer silt sediments bearing naturally occurring U(IV) can stimulate a nitrate-reducing microbial community capable of catalyzing the oxidation and mobilization of U into the porewater. Microbial reduction of nitrate yielded nitrite, a reactive intermediate, which was further demonstrated to abiotically mobilize U from the reduced alluvial aquifer sediments. These results indicate that microbial activity, specifically nitrate reduction to nitrite, is one mechanism driving U mobilization from aquifer sediments in addition to previously described bicarbonate-driven desorption from mineral surfaces, such as Fe(III) oxides.

Spatial and temporal conversion of nitrogen using Arthrobacter sp. 24S4-2, a strain obtained from Antarctica

According to average nucleotide identity (ANI) analysis of the complete genomes, strain 24S4-2 isolated from Antarctica is considered as a potential novel Arthrobacter species. Arthrobacter sp. 24S4-2 could grow and produce ammonium in nitrate or nitrite or even nitrogen free medium. Strain 24S4-2 was discovered to accumulate nitrate/nitrite and subsequently convert nitrate to nitrite intracellularly when incubated in a nitrate/nitrite medium. In nitrogen-free medium, strain 24S4-2 not only reduced the accumulated nitrite for growth, but also secreted ammonia to the extracellular under aerobic condition, which was thought to be linked to nitrite reductase genes nirB, nirD, and nasA by the transcriptome and RT-qPCR analysis. A membrane-like vesicle structure was detected in the cell of strain 24S4-2 by transmission electron microscopy, which was thought to be the site of intracellular nitrogen supply accumulation and conversion. This spatial and temporal conversion process of nitrogen source helps the strain maintain development in the absence of nitrogen supply or a harsh environment, which is part of its adaption strategy to the Antarctic environment. This process may also play an important ecological role, that other bacteria in the environment would benefit from its extracellular nitrogen source secretion and nitrite consumption characteristics.

Membrane Protein Modified Electrodes in Bioelectrocatalysis

Transmembrane proteins involved in metabolic redox reactions and photosynthesis catalyse a plethora of key energy-conversion processes and are thus of great interest for bioelectrocatalysis-based applications. The development of membrane protein modified electrodes has made it possible to efficiently exchange electrons between proteins and electrodes, allowing mechanistic studies and potentially applications in biofuels generation and energy conversion. Here, we summarise the most common electrode modification and their characterisation techniques for membrane proteins involved in biofuels conversion and semi-artificial photosynthesis. We discuss the challenges of applications of membrane protein modified electrodes for bioelectrocatalysis and comment on emerging methods and future directions, including recent advances in membrane protein reconstitution strategies and the development of microbial electrosynthesis and whole-cell semi-artificial photosynthesis.

Direct Electron Transfer of Enzymes Facilitated by Cytochromes

The direct electron transfer (DET) of enzymes has been utilized to develop biosensors and enzymatic biofuel cells on micro- and nanostructured electrodes. Whereas some enzymes exhibit direct electron transfer between their active-site cofactor and an electrode, other oxidoreductases depend on acquired cytochrome domains or cytochrome subunits as built-in redox mediators. The physiological function of these cytochromes is to transfer electrons between the active-site cofactor and a redox partner protein. The exchange of the natural electron acceptor/donor by an electrode has been demonstrated for several cytochrome carrying oxidoreductases. These multi-cofactor enzymes have been applied in third generation biosensors to detect glucose, lactate, and other analytes. This review investigates and classifies oxidoreductases with a cytochrome domain, enzyme complexes with a cytochrome subunit, and covers designed cytochrome fusion enzymes. The structurally and electrochemically best characterized proponents from each enzyme class carrying a cytochrome, that is, flavoenzymes, quinoenzymes, molybdenum-cofactor enzymes, iron-sulfur cluster enzymes, and multi-haem enzymes, are featured, and their biochemical, kinetic, and electrochemical properties are compared. The cytochromes molecular and functional properties as well as their contribution to the interdomain electron transfer (IET, between active-site and cytochrome) and DET (between cytochrome and electrode) with regard to the achieved current density is discussed. Protein design strategies for cytochrome-fused enzymes are reviewed and the limiting factors as well as strategies to overcome them are outlined.

The direct electrochemistry and bioelectrocatalysis of nitrate reductase at a gold nanoparticles/aminated graphene sheets modified glassy carbon electrode

The aminated graphene sheets could immobilize nitrate reductase stably and control its orientation through electrostatic attractions, achieving its direct electrochemistry.

Determining Redox Potentials of the Iron-Sulfur Clusters of the AdoMet Radical Enzyme Superfamily

While protein film electrochemistry (PFE) has proven to be an effective tool in the interrogation of redox cofactors and assessing the electrocatalytic activity of many different enzymes, recently it has been proven to be useful for the study of the redox potentials of the cofactors of AdoMet radical enzymes (AREs). In this chapter, we review the challenges and opportunities of examining the redox cofactors of AREs in a high level of detail, particularly for the deconvolution of redox potentials of multiple cofactors. We comment on how to best assess the electroactive nature of any given ARE, and we see that when applied well, PFE allows for not only determining redox potentials, but also determining proton-coupling and ligand-binding phenomena in the ARE superfamily.

Direct enzymatic bioelectrocatalysis: differentiating between myth and reality

Enzymatic bioelectrocatalysis is being increasingly exploited to better understand oxidoreductase enzymes, to develop minimalistic yet specific biosensor platforms, and to develop alternative energy conversion devices and bioelectrosynthetic devices for the production of energy and/or important chemical commodities. In some cases, these enzymes are able to electronically communicate with an appropriately designed electrode surface without the requirement of an electron mediator to shuttle electrons between the enzyme and electrode. This phenomenon has been termed direct electron transfer or direct bioelectrocatalysis. While many thorough studies have extensively investigated this fascinating feat, it is sometimes difficult to differentiate desirable enzymatic bioelectrocatalysis from electrocatalysis deriving from inactivated enzyme that may have also released its catalytic cofactor. This article will review direct bioelectrocatalysis of several oxidoreductases, with an emphasis on experiments that provide support for direct bioelectrocatalysis versus denatured enzyme or dissociated cofactor. Finally, this review will conclude with a series of proposed control experiments that could be adopted to discern successful direct electronic communication of an enzyme from its denatured counterpart.

Enzymes as modular catalysts for redox half-reactions in H2-powered chemical synthesis: from biology to technology

The present study considers the ways in which redox enzyme modules are coupled in living cells for linking reductive and oxidative half-reactions, and then reviews examples in which this concept can be exploited technologically in applications of coupled enzyme pairs. We discuss many examples in which enzymes are interfaced with electronically conductive particles to build up heterogeneous catalytic systems in an approach which could be termed synthetic biochemistry We focus on reactions involving the H+/H2 redox couple catalysed by NiFe hydrogenase moieties in conjunction with other biocatalysed reactions to assemble systems directed towards synthesis of specialised chemicals, chemical building blocks or bio-derived fuel molecules. We review our work in which this approach is applied in designing enzyme-modified particles for H2-driven recycling of the nicotinamide cofactor NADH to provide a clean cofactor source for applications of NADH-dependent enzymes in chemical synthesis, presenting a combination of published and new work on these systems. We also consider related photobiocatalytic approaches for light-driven production of chemicals or H2 as a fuel. We emphasise the techniques available for understanding detailed catalytic properties of the enzymes responsible for individual redox half-reactions, and the importance of a fundamental understanding of the enzyme characteristics in enabling effective applications of redox biocatalysis.

Enzymatic Bioelectrosynthetic Ammonia Production: Recent Electrochemistry of Nitrogenase, Nitrate Reductase, and Nitrite Reductase

As an essential component of amino acids and nucleic acids, nitrogen (N) is a key element of life. For atmospheric (dinitrogen, N₂ ) and environmental (nitrate and nitrite, NO₃ ^- and NO₂ ^- ) sources of N to be utilized in amino acid synthesis in various forms of life, it must first be reduced to ammonia (NH₃ ). The Haber-Bosch process, in which N₂ is reduced to NH₃ at elevated temperature and pressure, represents a major NH₃ production process that has had a great impact on the agricultural crop industry. This Minireview discusses the recent electrochemistry of three key enzymes of the global biogeochemical N cycle (nitrogenase, nitrate reductase, and nitrite reductase), in view of moving toward the creation of alternative NH₃ production biotechnologies.

Respiration of Nitrate and Nitrite

Nitrate reduction to ammonia via nitrite occurs widely as an anabolic process through which bacteria, archaea, and plants can assimilate nitrate into cellular biomass. Escherichia coli and related enteric bacteria can couple the eight-electron reduction of nitrate to ammonium to growth by coupling the nitrate and nitrite reductases involved to energy-conserving respiratory electron transport systems. In global terms, the respiratory reduction of nitrate to ammonium dominates nitrate and nitrite reduction in many electron-rich environments such as anoxic marine sediments and sulfide-rich thermal vents, the human gastrointestinal tract, and the bodies of warm-blooded animals. This review reviews the regulation and enzymology of this process in E. coli and, where relevant detail is available, also in Salmonella and draws comparisons with and implications for the process in other bacteria where it is pertinent to do so. Fatty acids may be present in high levels in many of the natural environments of E. coli and Salmonella in which oxygen is limited but nitrate is available to support respiration. In E. coli, nitrate reduction in the periplasm involves the products of two seven-gene operons, napFDAGHBC, encoding the periplasmic nitrate reductase, and nrfABCDEFG, encoding the periplasmic nitrite reductase. No bacterium has yet been shown to couple a periplasmic nitrate reductase solely to the cytoplasmic nitrite reductase NirB. The cytoplasmic pathway for nitrate reduction to ammonia is restricted almost exclusively to a few groups of facultative anaerobic bacteria that encounter high concentrations of environmental nitrate.

Structural and mechanistic insights on nitrate reductases

Nitrate reductases (NR) belong to the DMSO reductase family of Mo-containing enzymes and perform key roles in the metabolism of the nitrogen cycle, reducing nitrate to nitrite. Due to variable cell location, structure and function, they have been divided into periplasmic (Nap), cytoplasmic, and membrane-bound (Nar) nitrate reductases. The first crystal structure obtained for a NR was that of the monomeric NapA from Desulfovibrio desulfuricans in 1999. Since then several new crystal structures were solved providing novel insights that led to the revision of the commonly accepted reaction mechanism for periplasmic nitrate reductases. The two crystal structures available for the NarGHI protein are from the same organism (Escherichia coli) and the combination with electrochemical and spectroscopic studies also lead to the proposal of a reaction mechanism for this group of enzymes. Here we present an overview on the current advances in structural and functional aspects of bacterial nitrate reductases, focusing on the mechanistic implications drawn from the crystallographic data.

Pyranopterin Coordination Controls Molybdenum Electrochemistry in Escherichia coli Nitrate Reductase

We test the hypothesis that pyranopterin (PPT) coordination plays a critical role in defining molybdenum active site redox chemistry and reactivity in the mononuclear molybdoenzymes. The molybdenum atom of Escherichia coli nitrate reductase A (NarGHI) is coordinated by two PPT-dithiolene chelates that are defined as proximal and distal based on their proximity to a [4Fe-4S] cluster known as FS0. We examined variants of two sets of residues involved in PPT coordination: (i) those interacting directly or indirectly with the pyran oxygen of the bicyclic distal PPT (NarG-Ser(719), NarG-His(1163), and NarG-His(1184)); and (ii) those involved in bridging the two PPTs and stabilizing the oxidation state of the proximal PPT (NarG-His(1092) and NarG-His(1098)). A S719A variant has essentially no effect on the overall Mo(VI/IV) reduction potential, whereas the H1163A and H1184A variants elicit large effects (ΔEm values of -88 and -36 mV, respectively). Ala variants of His(1092) and His(1098) also elicit large ΔEm values of -143 and -101 mV, respectively. An Arg variant of His(1092) elicits a small ΔEm of +18 mV on the Mo(VI/IV) reduction potential. There is a linear correlation between the molybdenum Em value and both enzyme activity and the ability to support anaerobic respiratory growth on nitrate. These data support a non-innocent role for the PPT moieties in controlling active site metal redox chemistry and catalysis.

Reductive activation of E. coli respiratory nitrate reductase

Over the past decades, a number of authors have reported the presence of inactive species in as-prepared samples of members of the Mo/W-bisPGD enzyme family. This greatly complicated the spectroscopic studies of these enzymes, since it is impossible to discriminate between active and inactive species on the basis of the spectroscopic signatures alone. Escherichia coli nitrate reductase A (NarGHI) is a member of the Mo/W-bisPGD family that allows anaerobic respiration using nitrate as terminal electron acceptor. Here, using protein film voltammetry on NarGH films, we show that the enzyme is purified in a functionally heterogeneous form that contains between 20 and 40% of inactive species that activate the first time they are reduced. This activation proceeds in two steps: a non-redox reversible reaction followed by an irreversible reduction. By carefully correlating electrochemical and EPR spectroscopic data, we show that neither the two major Mo(V) signals nor those of the two FeS clusters that are the closest to the Mo center are associated with the two inactive species. We also conclusively exclude the possibility that the major "low-pH" and "high-pH" Mo(V) EPR signatures correspond to species in acid-base equilibrium.

Nitrate and periplasmic nitrate reductases

The nitrate anion is a simple, abundant and relatively stable species, yet plays a significant role in global cycling of nitrogen, global climate change, and human health. Although it has been known for quite some time that nitrate is an important species environmentally, recent studies have identified potential medical applications. In this respect the nitrate anion remains an enigmatic species that promises to offer exciting science in years to come. Many bacteria readily reduce nitrate to nitrite via nitrate reductases. Classified into three distinct types--periplasmic nitrate reductase (Nap), respiratory nitrate reductase (Nar) and assimilatory nitrate reductase (Nas), they are defined by their cellular location, operon organization and active site structure. Of these, Nap proteins are the focus of this review. Despite similarities in the catalytic and spectroscopic properties Nap from different Proteobacteria are phylogenetically distinct. This review has two major sections: in the first section, nitrate in the nitrogen cycle and human health, taxonomy of nitrate reductases, assimilatory and dissimilatory nitrate reduction, cellular locations of nitrate reductases, structural and redox chemistry are discussed. The second section focuses on the features of periplasmic nitrate reductase where the catalytic subunit of the Nap and its kinetic properties, auxiliary Nap proteins, operon structure and phylogenetic relationships are discussed.

Denitrification by plant roots? New aspects of plant plasma membrane-bound nitrate reductase

A specific form of plasma membrane-bound nitrate reductase in plants is restricted to roots. Two peptides originated from plasma membrane integral proteins isolated from Hordeum vulgare have been assigned as homologues to the subunit NarH of respiratory nitrate reductase of Escherichia coli. Corresponding sequences have been detected for predicted proteins of Populus trichocarpa with high degree of identities for the subunits NarH (75%) and NarG (65%), however, with less accordance for the subunit NarI. These findings coincide with biochemical properties, particularly in regard to the electron donors menadione and succinate. Together with the root-specific and plasma membrane-bound nitrite/NO reductase, nitric oxide is produced under hypoxic conditions in the presence of nitrate. In this context, a possible function in nitrate respiration of plant roots and an involvement of plants in denitrification processes are discussed.

Substrate-dependent modulation of the enzymatic catalytic activity: reduction of nitrate, chlorate and perchlorate by respiratory nitrate reductase from Marinobacter hydrocarbonoclasticus 617

The respiratory nitrate reductase complex (NarGHI) from Marinobacter hydrocarbonoclasticus 617 (Mh, formerly Pseudomonas nautica 617) catalyzes the reduction of nitrate to nitrite. This reaction is the first step of the denitrification pathway and is coupled to the quinone pool oxidation and proton translocation to the periplasm, which generates the proton motive force needed for ATP synthesis. The Mh NarGH water-soluble heterodimer has been purified and the kinetic and redox properties have been studied through in-solution enzyme kinetics, protein film voltammetry and spectropotentiometric redox titration. The kinetic parameters of Mh NarGH toward substrates and inhibitors are consistent with those reported for other respiratory nitrate reductases. Protein film voltammetry showed that at least two catalytically distinct forms of the enzyme, which depend on the applied potential, are responsible for substrate reduction. These two forms are affected differentially by the oxidizing substrate, as well as by pH and inhibitors. A new model for the potential dependence of the catalytic efficiency of Nars is proposed.

Pterin chemistry and its relationship to the molybdenum cofactor

The molybdenum cofactor is composed of a molybdenum coordinated by one or two rather complicated ligands known as either molybdopterin or pyranopterin. Pterin is one of a large family of bicyclic N-heterocycles called pteridines. Such molecules are widely found in Nature, having various forms to perform a variety of biological functions. This article describes the basic nomenclature of pterin, their biological roles, structure, chemical synthesis and redox reactivity. In addition, the biosynthesis of pterins and current models of the molybdenum cofactor are discussed.

Electrocatalytic reduction of nitrate and selenate by NapAB

Bacterial cellular metabolism is renowned for its metabolic diversity and adaptability. However, certain environments present particular challenges. Aerobic metabolism of highly reduced carbon substrates by soil bacteria such as Paracoccus pantotrophus presents one such challenge since it may result in excessive electron delivery to the respiratory redox chain when compared with the availability of terminal oxidant, O2. The level of a periplasmic ubiquinol-dependent nitrate reductase, NAP, is up-regulated in the presence of highly reduced carbon substrates. NAP oxidizes ubiquinol at the periplasmic face of the cytoplasmic membrane and reduces nitrate in the periplasm. Thus its activity counteracts the accumulation of excess reducing equivalents in ubiquinol, thereby maintaining the redox poise of the ubiquinone/ubiquinol pool without contributing to the protonmotive force across the cytoplasmic membrane. Although P. pantotrophus NapAB shows a high level of substrate specificity towards nitrate, the enzyme has also been reported to reduce selenate in spectrophotometric solution assays. This transaction draws on our current knowledge concerning the bacterial respiratory nitrate reductases and extends the application of PFE (protein film electrochemistry) to resolve and quantify the selenate reductase activity of NapAB.

Electrodes modified with lipid membranes to study quinone oxidoreductases

Quinone oxidoreductases are a class of membrane enzymes that catalyse the oxidation or reduction of membrane-bound quinols/quinones. The conversion of quinone/quinol by these enzymes is difficult to study because of the hydrophobic nature of the enzymes and their substrates. We describe some biochemical properties of quinones and quinone oxidoreductases and then look in more detail at two model membranes that can be used to study quinone oxidoreductases in a native-like membrane environment with their native lipophilic quinone substrates. The results obtained with these model membranes are compared with classical enzyme assays that use water-soluble quinone analogues.

Microbial biofilm voltammetry: direct electrochemical characterization of catalytic electrode-attached biofilms

While electrochemical characterization of enzymes immobilized on electrodes has become common, there is still a need for reliable quantitative methods for study of electron transfer between living cells and conductive surfaces. This work describes growth of thin (<20 microm) Geobacter sulfurreducens biofilms on polished glassy carbon electrodes, using stirred three-electrode anaerobic bioreactors controlled by potentiostats and nondestructive voltammetry techniques for characterization of viable biofilms. Routine in vivo analysis of electron transfer between bacterial cells and electrodes was performed, providing insight into the main redox-active species participating in electron transfer to electrodes. At low scan rates, cyclic voltammetry revealed catalytic electron transfer between cells and the electrode, similar to what has been observed for pure enzymes attached to electrodes under continuous turnover conditions. Differential pulse voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy also revealed features that were consistent with electron transfer being mediated by an adsorbed catalyst. Multiple redox-active species were detected, revealing complexity at the outer surfaces of this bacterium. These techniques provide the basis for cataloging quantifiable, defined electron transfer phenotypes as a function of potential, electrode material, growth phase, and culture conditions and provide a framework for comparisons with other species or communities.

Electrochemical characterization of Geobacter sulfurreducens cells immobilized on graphite paper electrodes

Bacteria able to transfer electrons to conductive surfaces are of interest as catalysts in microbial fuel cells, as well as in bioprocessing, bioremediation, and corrosion. New procedures for immobilization of Geobacter sulfurreducens on graphite electrodes are described that allow routine, repeatable electrochemical analysis of cell-electrode interactions. Immediately after immobilizing G. sulfurreducens on electrodes, electrical current was obtained without addition of exogenous electron shuttles or electroactive polymers. Voltammetry and impedance analysis of pectin-immobilized bacteria transferring electrons to electrode surfaces could also be performed. Cyclic voltammetry of immobilized cells revealed voltage-dependent catalytic current similar to what is commonly observed with adsorbed enzymes, with catalytic waves centered at -0.15 V (vs. SHE). Electrodes maintained at +0.25 V (vs. SHE) initially produced 0.52 A/m(2) in the presence of acetate as the electron donor. Electrical Impedance Spectroscopy of coatings was also consistent with a catalytic mechanism, controlled by charge transfer rate. When electrodes were maintained at an oxidizing potential for 24 h, electron transfer to electrodes increased to 1.75 A/m(2). These observations of electron transfer by pectin-entrapped G. sulfurreducens appear to reflect native mechanisms used for respiration. The ability of washed G. sulfurreducens cells to immediately produce electrical current was consistent with the external surface of this bacterium possessing a pathway linking oxidative metabolism to extracellular electron transfer. This electrochemical activity of pectin-immobilized bacteria illustrates a strategy for preparation of catalytic electrodes and study of Geobacter under defined conditions.

Voltammetric characterization of the aerobic energy-dissipating nitrate reductase of Paracoccus pantotrophus: exploring the activity of a redox-balancing enzyme as a function of electrochemical potential

Paracoccus pantotrophus expresses two nitrate reductases associated with respiratory electron transport, termed NapABC and NarGHI. Both enzymes derive electrons from ubiquinol to reduce nitrate to nitrite. However, while NarGHI harnesses the energy of the quinol/nitrate couple to generate a transmembrane proton gradient, NapABC dissipates the energy associated with these reducing equivalents. In the present paper we explore the nitrate reductase activity of purified NapAB as a function of electrochemical potential, substrate concentration and pH using protein film voltammetry. Nitrate reduction by NapAB is shown to occur at potentials below approx. 0.1 V at pH 7. These are lower potentials than required for NarGH nitrate reduction. The potentials required for Nap nitrate reduction are also likely to require ubiquinol/ubiquinone ratios higher than are needed to activate the H(+)-pumping oxidases expressed during aerobic growth where Nap levels are maximal. Thus the operational potentials of P. pantotrophus NapAB are consistent with a productive role in redox balancing. A Michaelis constant (K(M)) of approx. 45 muM was determined for NapAB nitrate reduction at pH 7. This is in line with studies on intact cells where nitrate reduction by Nap was described by a Monod constant (K(S)) of less than 15 muM. The voltammetric studies also disclosed maximal NapAB activity in a narrow window of potential. This behaviour is resistant to change of pH, nitrate concentration and inhibitor concentration and its possible mechanistic origins are discussed.

Effects of Slow Substrate Binding and Release in Redox Enzymes: Theory and Application to Periplasmic Nitrate Reductase

For redox enzymes, the technique called protein film voltammetry makes it possible to determine the entire profile of activity against driving force by having the enzyme exchanging directly electrons with the rotating-disc electrode onto which it is adsorbed. Both the potential location of the catalytic response and its detailed shape report on the sequence of catalytic events, electron transfers and chemical steps, but the models that have been used so far to decipher this signal lack generality. For example, it was often proposed that substrate binding to multiple redox states of the active site may explain that turnover is greater in a certain window of electrode potential, but no fully analytical treatment has been given. Here, we derive (i) the general current equation for the case of reversible substrate binding to any redox states of a two-electron active site (as exemplified by flavins and Mo cofactors), (ii) the quantitative conditions for an extremum in activity to occur, and (iii) the expressions from which the substrate-concentration dependence of the catalytic potential can be interpreted to learn about the kinetics of substrate binding and how this affects the reduction potential of the active site. Not only does slow substrate binding and release make the catalytic wave shape highly complex, but we also show that it can have important consequences which will escape detection in traditional experiments: the position of the wave (this is the driving force that is required to elicit catalysis) departs from the reduction potential of the active site even at the lowest substrate concentration, and this deviation may be large if substrate binding is irreversible. This occurs in the reductive half-cycle of periplasmic nitrate reductase where irreversibility lowers the driving force required to reduce the active site under turnover conditions and favors intramolecular electron transfer from the proximal [4Fe4S]+ cluster to the active site Mo(V).

Evidence for heme release in layer-by-layer assemblies of myoglobin and polystyrenesulfonate on pyrolitic graphite

Layer-by-layer assemblies of myoglobin and polystyrenesulfonate (PSS) on pyrolitic graphite have been investigated with the goal of determining the origin of the voltammetric response of these films. From the similar midpoint potential, coverage and electron transfer behavior compared with those of adsorbed free heme, it was concluded that the observed voltammetric peak is due to heme adsorbed at the electrode surface. This suggests that the interactions between the pyrolitic graphite electrode, PSS and myoglobin can result in heme release from the protein followed by heme adsorption on the electrode.