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Yu LT, Hancu MC, Kreutzberger MAB, Henrickson A, Demeler B, Egelman EH, Hartgerink JD. Hollow Octadecameric Self-Assembly of Collagen-like Peptides. J Am Chem Soc 2023; 145:5285-5296. [PMID: 36812303 PMCID: PMC10131286 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c12931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/24/2023]
Abstract
The folding of collagen is a hierarchical process that starts with three peptides associating into the characteristic triple helical fold. Depending on the specific collagen in question, these triple helices then assemble into bundles reminiscent of α-helical coiled-coils. Unlike α-helices, however, the bundling of collagen triple helices is very poorly understood with almost no direct experimental data available. In order to shed light on this critical step of collagen hierarchical assembly, we have examined the collagenous region of complement component 1q. Thirteen synthetic peptides were prepared to dissect the critical regions allowing for its octadecameric self-assembly. We find that short peptides (under 40 amino acids) are able to self-assemble into specific (ABC)6 octadecamers. This requires the ABC heterotrimeric composition as the self-assembly subunit, but does not require disulfide bonds. Self-assembly into this octadecamer is aided by short noncollagenous sequences at the N-terminus, although they are not entirely required. The mechanism of self-assembly appears to begin with the very slow formation of the ABC heterotrimeric helix, followed by rapid bundling of triple helices into progressively larger oligomers, terminating in the formation of the (ABC)6 octadecamer. Cryo-electron microscopy reveals the (ABC)6 assembly as a remarkable, hollow, crown-like structure with an open channel approximately 18 Å at the narrow end and 30 Å at the wide end. This work helps to illuminate the structure and assembly mechanism of a critical protein in the innate immune system and lays the groundwork for the de novo design of higher order collagen mimetic peptide assemblies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Le Tracy Yu
- Department of Chemistry, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005, United States
| | - Maria C. Hancu
- Department of Chemistry, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005, United States
| | - Mark A. B. Kreutzberger
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Virginia Box 800733, Charlottesville, VA 22908, United States
| | - Amy Henrickson
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, Alberta T1K 3M4, Canada
| | - Borries Demeler
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, Alberta T1K 3M4, Canada
| | - Edward H. Egelman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Virginia Box 800733, Charlottesville, VA 22908, United States
| | - Jeffrey D. Hartgerink
- Department of Chemistry, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005, United States
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005, United States
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Li MF, Zhang HQ, Sun JS. A novel C1qDC (PoC1qDC) with a collagen domain in Paralichthys olivaceus mediates complement activation and against bacterial infection. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2023; 132:108472. [PMID: 36470404 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2022.108472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Revised: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Complement C1q domain containing protein (C1qDC) is a vital recognition molecule and has an important effect on immunity. The C1qDCs exhibit opsonic activity in fish, while the mechanisms of C1qDCs in activation complement still remain unclear. This study explored immunological characteristics of a C1qDC from Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) (PoC1qDC). PoC1qDC consists of 296 amino acid residues, possessing a collagen domain and a C1q domain. According to our results, PoC1qDC was expressed in 9 diverse tissue samples and showed up-regulation after bacterial challenge. Recombinant PoC1qDC (rPoC1qDC) activated normal serum bactericidal and hemolytic activities by interaction with Japanese flounder IgM, but not enhanced the complement activity of C3-depeleted serum. rPoC1qDC was significantly bound to various bacterial species and agglutination activity against Edwardsiella piscicida and Streptococcus iniae. Furthermore, rPoC1qDC showed direct interaction with peripheral blood leucocytes while enhancing phagocytic and chemotactic activity. When PoC1qDC was overexpressed in Japanese flounder before E. piscicida infection, bacterial replication was significantly inhibited in fish tissues. Consistently, when PoC1qDC expression in Japanese flounder was knocked down, bacterial replication was significantly enhanced. The above findings first suggested the role of PoC1qDC in teleost in mediating complement activation by interaction with IgM, which can positively influence bacterial infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mo-Fei Li
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance, College of Life Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, 393 West Binshui Road, Xiqing District, Tianjin, 300387, China
| | - Hong-Qiang Zhang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance, College of Life Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, 393 West Binshui Road, Xiqing District, Tianjin, 300387, China
| | - Jin-Sheng Sun
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance, College of Life Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, 393 West Binshui Road, Xiqing District, Tianjin, 300387, China.
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Yao Y, Yim EKF. Fucoidan for cardiovascular application and the factors mediating its activities. Carbohydr Polym 2021; 270:118347. [PMID: 34364596 PMCID: PMC10429693 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Revised: 06/12/2021] [Accepted: 06/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Fucoidan is a sulfated polysaccharide with various bioactivities. The application of fucoidan in cancer treatment, wound healing, and food industry has been extensively studied. However, the therapeutic value of fucoidan in cardiovascular diseases has been less explored. Increasing number of investigations in the past years have demonstrated the effects of fucoidan on cardiovascular system. In this review, we will focus on the bioactivities related to cardiovascular applications, for example, the modulation functions of fucoidan on coagulation system, inflammation, and vascular cells. Factors mediating those activities will be discussed in detail. Current therapeutic strategies and future opportunities and challenges will be provided to inspire and guide further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Yao
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada.
| | - Evelyn K F Yim
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada; Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada; Center for Biotechnology and Bioengineering, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada.
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4
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Maiorani O, Pivetta E, Capuano A, Modica TME, Wassermann B, Bucciotti F, Colombatti A, Doliana R, Spessotto P. Neutrophil elastase cleavage of the gC1q domain impairs the EMILIN1-α4β1 integrin interaction, cell adhesion and anti-proliferative activity. Sci Rep 2017; 7:39974. [PMID: 28074935 PMCID: PMC5225433 DOI: 10.1038/srep39974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2016] [Accepted: 11/29/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The extracellular matrix glycoprotein EMILIN1 exerts a wide range of functions mainly associated with its gC1q domain. Besides providing functional significance for adhesion and migration, the direct interaction between α4β1 integrin and EMILIN1-gC1q regulates cell proliferation, transducing net anti-proliferative effects. We have previously demonstrated that EMILIN1 degradation by neutrophil elastase (NE) is a specific mechanism leading to the loss of functions disabling its regulatory properties. In this study we further analysed the proteolytic activity of NE, MMP-3, MMP-9, and MT1-MMP on EMILIN1 and found that MMP-3 and MT1-MMP partially cleaved EMILIN1 but without affecting the functional properties associated with the gC1q domain, whereas NE was able to fully impair the interaction of gC1q with the α4β1 integrin by cleaving this domain outside of the E933 integrin binding site. By a site direct mutagenesis approach we mapped the bond between S913 and R914 residues and selected the NE-resistant R914W mutant still able to interact with the α4β1 integrin after NE treatment. Functional studies showed that NE impaired the EMILIN1-α4β1 integrin interaction by cleaving the gC1q domain in a region crucial for its proper structural conformation, paving the way to better understand NE effects on EMILIN1-cell interaction in pathological context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orlando Maiorani
- Experimental Oncology 2, Department of Translational Research, CRO-IRCCS, National Cancer Institute, Aviano 33081, Italy
| | - Eliana Pivetta
- Experimental Oncology 2, Department of Translational Research, CRO-IRCCS, National Cancer Institute, Aviano 33081, Italy
| | - Alessandra Capuano
- Experimental Oncology 2, Department of Translational Research, CRO-IRCCS, National Cancer Institute, Aviano 33081, Italy
| | - Teresa Maria Elisa Modica
- Experimental Oncology 2, Department of Translational Research, CRO-IRCCS, National Cancer Institute, Aviano 33081, Italy
| | - Bruna Wassermann
- Experimental Oncology 2, Department of Translational Research, CRO-IRCCS, National Cancer Institute, Aviano 33081, Italy
| | - Francesco Bucciotti
- Experimental Oncology 2, Department of Translational Research, CRO-IRCCS, National Cancer Institute, Aviano 33081, Italy
| | - Alfonso Colombatti
- Experimental Oncology 2, Department of Translational Research, CRO-IRCCS, National Cancer Institute, Aviano 33081, Italy
| | - Roberto Doliana
- Experimental Oncology 2, Department of Translational Research, CRO-IRCCS, National Cancer Institute, Aviano 33081, Italy
| | - Paola Spessotto
- Experimental Oncology 2, Department of Translational Research, CRO-IRCCS, National Cancer Institute, Aviano 33081, Italy
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5
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An amphioxus gC1q protein binds human IgG and initiates the classical pathway: Implications for a C1q-mediated complement system in the basal chordate. Eur J Immunol 2014; 44:3680-95. [DOI: 10.1002/eji.201444734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2014] [Revised: 07/27/2014] [Accepted: 08/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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6
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Courtois A, Berthou C, Guézennec J, Boisset C, Bordron A. Exopolysaccharides isolated from hydrothermal vent bacteria can modulate the complement system. PLoS One 2014; 9:e94965. [PMID: 24736648 PMCID: PMC3988086 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0094965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2013] [Accepted: 03/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The complement system is involved in the defence against bacterial infection, or in the elimination of tumour cells. However, disturbances in this system contributes to the pathogenesis of various inflammatory diseases. The efficiency of therapeutic anti-tumour antibodies is enhanced when the complement system is stimulated. In contrast, cancer cells are able to inhibit the complement system and thus proliferate. Some marine molecules are currently being developed as new drugs for use in humans. Among them, known exopolyssacharides (EPSs) generally originate from fungi, but few studies have been performed on bacterial EPSs and even fewer on EPSs extracted from deep-sea hydrothermal vent microbes. For use in humans, these high molecular weight EPSs must be depolymerised. Furthermore, the over-sulphation of EPSs can modify their biological activity. The aim of this study was to investigate the immunodulation of the complement system by either native or over-sulphated low molecular weight EPSs isolated from vent bacteria in order to find pro or anti-activators of complement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Courtois
- Biotechnology and Marine Molecules Laboratory, IFREMER, Brest, France
- Cellular Therapy and Immunobiology of Cancer Laboratory, University Hospital of Brest, Brest, France
| | - Christian Berthou
- Cellular Therapy and Immunobiology of Cancer Laboratory, University Hospital of Brest, Brest, France
| | - Jean Guézennec
- Biotechnology and Marine Molecules Laboratory, IFREMER, Brest, France
| | - Claire Boisset
- Biotechnology and Marine Molecules Laboratory, IFREMER, Brest, France
| | - Anne Bordron
- Cellular Therapy and Immunobiology of Cancer Laboratory, University Hospital of Brest, Brest, France
- * E-mail:
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7
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Bally I, Ancelet S, Moriscot C, Gonnet F, Mantovani A, Daniel R, Schoehn G, Arlaud GJ, Thielens NM. Expression of recombinant human complement C1q allows identification of the C1r/C1s-binding sites. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:8650-5. [PMID: 23650384 PMCID: PMC3666734 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1304894110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Complement C1q is a hexameric molecule assembled from 18 polypeptide chains of three different types encoded by three genes. This versatile recognition protein senses a wide variety of immune and nonimmune ligands, including pathogens and altered self components, and triggers the classical complement pathway through activation of its associated proteases C1r and C1s. We report a method for expression of recombinant full-length human C1q involving stable transfection of HEK 293-F mammalian cells and fusion of an affinity tag to the C-terminal end of the C chain. The resulting recombinant (r) C1q molecule is similar to serum C1q as judged from biochemical and structural analyses and exhibits the characteristic shape of a bunch of flowers. Analysis of its interaction properties by surface plasmon resonance shows that rC1q retains the ability of serum C1q to associate with the C1s-C1r-C1r-C1s tetramer, to recognize physiological C1q ligands such as IgG and pentraxin 3, and to trigger C1r and C1s activation. Functional analysis of rC1q variants carrying mutations of LysA59, LysB61, and/or LysC58, in the collagen-like stems, demonstrates that LysB61 and LysC58 each play a key role in the interaction with C1s-C1r-C1r-C1s, with LysA59 being involved to a lesser degree. We propose that LysB61 and LysC58 both form salt bridges with outer acidic Ca(2+) ligands of the C1r and C1s CUB (complement C1r/C1s, Uegf, bone morphogenetic protein) domains. The expression method reported here opens the way for deciphering the molecular basis of the unusual binding versatility of C1q by mapping the residues involved in the sensing of its targets and the binding of its receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle Bally
- Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives, Direction des Sciences du Vivant, Institut de Biologie Structurale, F-38027 Grenoble, France
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 5075, F-38027 Grenoble, France
- Université Grenoble Alpes, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Sarah Ancelet
- Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives, Direction des Sciences du Vivant, Institut de Biologie Structurale, F-38027 Grenoble, France
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 5075, F-38027 Grenoble, France
- Université Grenoble Alpes, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Christine Moriscot
- Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives, Direction des Sciences du Vivant, Institut de Biologie Structurale, F-38027 Grenoble, France
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 5075, F-38027 Grenoble, France
- Université Grenoble Alpes, F-38000 Grenoble, France
- CNRS, Unité Mixte Internationale 3265, Unit for Virus Host Cell Interactions, F-38042-Grenoble, France
| | - Florence Gonnet
- CNRS, UMR 8587, Laboratoire Analyse et Modélisation pour la Biologie et l‘Environnement, F-91025 Evry, France
- Université d’Evry-Val-d’Essonne, Laboratoire Analyse et Modélisation pour la Biologie et l’Environnement, F-91025 Evry, France; and
| | | | - Régis Daniel
- CNRS, UMR 8587, Laboratoire Analyse et Modélisation pour la Biologie et l‘Environnement, F-91025 Evry, France
- Université d’Evry-Val-d’Essonne, Laboratoire Analyse et Modélisation pour la Biologie et l’Environnement, F-91025 Evry, France; and
| | - Guy Schoehn
- Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives, Direction des Sciences du Vivant, Institut de Biologie Structurale, F-38027 Grenoble, France
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 5075, F-38027 Grenoble, France
- Université Grenoble Alpes, F-38000 Grenoble, France
- CNRS, Unité Mixte Internationale 3265, Unit for Virus Host Cell Interactions, F-38042-Grenoble, France
| | - Gérard J. Arlaud
- Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives, Direction des Sciences du Vivant, Institut de Biologie Structurale, F-38027 Grenoble, France
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 5075, F-38027 Grenoble, France
- Université Grenoble Alpes, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Nicole M. Thielens
- Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives, Direction des Sciences du Vivant, Institut de Biologie Structurale, F-38027 Grenoble, France
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 5075, F-38027 Grenoble, France
- Université Grenoble Alpes, F-38000 Grenoble, France
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Mädler S, Boeri Erba E, Zenobi R. MALDI-ToF mass spectrometry for studying noncovalent complexes of biomolecules. Top Curr Chem (Cham) 2012; 331:1-36. [PMID: 22371170 DOI: 10.1007/128_2011_311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS) has been demonstrated to be a valuable tool to investigate noncovalent interactions of biomolecules. The direct detection of noncovalent assemblies is often more troublesome than with electrospray ionization. Using dedicated sample preparation techniques and carefully optimized instrumental parameters, a number of biomolecule assemblies were successfully analyzed. For complexes dissociating under MALDI conditions, covalent stabilization with chemical cross-linking is a suitable alternative. Indirect methods allow the detection of noncovalent assemblies by monitoring the fading of binding partners or altered H/D exchange patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Mädler
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, 8093, Zurich, Switzerland
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Jiao G, Yu G, Zhang J, Ewart HS. Chemical structures and bioactivities of sulfated polysaccharides from marine algae. Mar Drugs 2011; 9:196-223. [PMID: 21566795 PMCID: PMC3093253 DOI: 10.3390/md9020196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 560] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2010] [Revised: 01/15/2011] [Accepted: 01/26/2011] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Sulfated polysaccharides and their lower molecular weight oligosaccharide derivatives from marine macroalgae have been shown to possess a variety of biological activities. The present paper will review the recent progress in research on the structural chemistry and the bioactivities of these marine algal biomaterials. In particular, it will provide an update on the structural chemistry of the major sulfated polysaccharides synthesized by seaweeds including the galactans (e.g., agarans and carrageenans), ulvans, and fucans. It will then review the recent findings on the anticoagulant/antithrombotic, antiviral, immuno-inflammatory, antilipidemic and antioxidant activities of sulfated polysaccharides and their potential for therapeutic application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangling Jiao
- National Research Council Canada, Institute for Marine Biosciences, Halifax, NS, B3H 3Z1, Canada;
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Ministry of Education, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China
| | - Guangli Yu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Ministry of Education, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong 266003, China
| | - Junzeng Zhang
- National Research Council Canada, Institute for Nutrisciences and Health, Charlottetown, PEI, C1A 4P3, Canada;
| | - H. Stephen Ewart
- National Research Council Canada, Institute for Marine Biosciences, Halifax, NS, B3H 3Z1, Canada;
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Chlubnová I, Sylla B, Nugier-Chauvin C, Daniellou R, Legentil L, Kralová B, Ferrières V. Natural glycans and glycoconjugates as immunomodulating agents. Nat Prod Rep 2011; 28:937-52. [DOI: 10.1039/c1np00005e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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11
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Hamad OA, Nilsson PH, Lasaosa M, Ricklin D, Lambris JD, Nilsson B, Nilsson Ekdahl K. Contribution of chondroitin sulfate A to the binding of complement proteins to activated platelets. PLoS One 2010; 5:e12889. [PMID: 20886107 PMCID: PMC2944812 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0012889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2010] [Accepted: 08/19/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Exposure of chondroitin sulfate A (CS-A) on the surface of activated platelets is well established. The aim of the present study was to investigate to what extent CS-A contributes to the binding of the complement recognition molecule C1q and the complement regulators C1 inhibitor (C1INH), C4b-binding protein (C4BP), and factor H to platelets. Principal Findings Human blood serum was passed over Sepharose conjugated with CS-A, and CS-A-specific binding proteins were identified by Western blotting and mass spectrometric analysis. C1q was shown to be the main protein that specifically bound to CS-A, but C4BP and factor H were also shown to interact. Binding of C1INH was dependent of the presence of C1q and then not bound to CS-A from C1q-depleted serum. The specific interactions observed of these proteins with CS-A were subsequently confirmed by surface plasmon resonance analysis using purified proteins. Importantly, C1q, C4BP, and factor H were also shown to bind to activated platelets and this interaction was inhibited by a CS-A-specific monoclonal antibody, thereby linking the binding of C1q, C4BP, and factor H to exposure of CS-A on activated platelets. CS-A-bound C1q was also shown to amplify the binding of model immune complexes to both microtiter plate-bound CS-A and to activated platelets. Conclusions This study supports the concept that CS-A contributes to the binding of C1q, C4BP, and factor H to platelets, thereby adding CS-A to the previously reported binding sites for these proteins on the platelet surface. CS-A-bound C1q also seems to amplify the binding of immune complexes to activated platelets, suggesting a role for this molecule in immune complex diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osama A. Hamad
- Division of Clinical Immunology, Rudbeck Laboratory C5, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Per H. Nilsson
- School of Natural Sciences, Linnaeus University, Kalmar, Sweden
| | - Maria Lasaosa
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Daniel Ricklin
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - John D. Lambris
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Bo Nilsson
- Division of Clinical Immunology, Rudbeck Laboratory C5, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- * E-mail:
| | - Kristina Nilsson Ekdahl
- Division of Clinical Immunology, Rudbeck Laboratory C5, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- School of Natural Sciences, Linnaeus University, Kalmar, Sweden
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12
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Brier S, Pflieger D, Le Mignon M, Bally I, Gaboriaud C, Arlaud GJ, Daniel R. Mapping surface accessibility of the C1r/C1s tetramer by chemical modification and mass spectrometry provides new insights into assembly of the human C1 complex. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:32251-63. [PMID: 20592021 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.149112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
C1, the complex that triggers the classic pathway of complement, is a 790-kDa assembly resulting from association of a recognition protein C1q with a Ca(2+)-dependent tetramer comprising two copies of the proteases C1r and C1s. Early structural investigations have shown that the extended C1s-C1r-C1r-C1s tetramer folds into a compact conformation in C1. Recent site-directed mutagenesis studies have identified the C1q-binding sites in C1r and C1s and led to a three-dimensional model of the C1 complex (Bally, I., Rossi, V., Lunardi, T., Thielens, N. M., Gaboriaud, C., and Arlaud, G. J. (2009) J. Biol. Chem. 284, 19340-19348). In this study, we have used a mass spectrometry-based strategy involving a label-free semi-quantitative analysis of protein samples to gain new structural insights into C1 assembly. Using a stable chemical modification, we have compared the accessibility of the lysine residues in the isolated tetramer and in C1. The labeling data account for 51 of the 73 lysine residues of C1r and C1s. They strongly support the hypothesis that both C1s CUB(1)-EGF-CUB(2) interaction domains, which are distant in the free tetramer, associate with each other in the C1 complex. This analysis also provides the first experimental evidence that, in the proenzyme form of C1, the C1s serine protease domain is partly positioned inside the C1q cone and yields precise information about its orientation in the complex. These results provide further structural insights into the architecture of the C1 complex, allowing significant improvement of our current C1 model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sébastien Brier
- CNRS, UMR 8587, Université d'Evry-Val-d'Essonne, Laboratoire Analyse et Modélisation pour la Biologie et l'Environnement, Boulevard François Mitterrand, 91025 Evry, France.
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13
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Clément MJ, Tissot B, Chevolot L, Adjadj E, Du Y, Curmi PA, Daniel R. NMR characterization and molecular modeling of fucoidan showing the importance of oligosaccharide branching in its anticomplementary activity. Glycobiology 2010; 20:883-94. [PMID: 20356826 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwq046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Fucoidan is a potent inhibitor of the human complement system whose activity is mediated through interactions with certain proteins belonging to the classical pathway, particularly the protein C4. Branched fucoidan oligosaccharides displayed a higher anticomplementary activity as compared to linear structures. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) characterization of the branched oligosaccharides and saturation transfer difference-NMR experiment of the interaction with the protein C4 allowed the identification of the glycan residues in close contact with the target protein. Transferred nuclear Overhauser effect spectroscopy experiment and molecular modeling of fucoidan oligosaccharides indicated that the presence of side chains reduces the flexibility of the oligosaccharide backbone, which thus adopts a conformation which is very close to the one recognized by the protein C4. Together, these results suggest that branching of fucoidan oligosaccharides, determining their conformational state, has a major impact on their anticomplementary activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Jeanne Clément
- CNRS UMR 8587, Laboratoire Analyse et Environnement, Université d'Evry Val d'Essonne, rue du Père Jarlan, 91025 Evry Cedex, France
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14
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Pflieger D, Przybylski C, Gonnet F, Le Caer JP, Lunardi T, Arlaud GJ, Daniel R. Analysis of human C1q by combined bottom-up and top-down mass spectrometry: detailed mapping of post-translational modifications and insights into the C1r/C1s binding sites. Mol Cell Proteomics 2009; 9:593-610. [PMID: 20008834 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m900350-mcp200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
C1q is a subunit of the C1 complex, a key player in innate immunity that triggers activation of the classical complement pathway. Featuring a unique structural organization and comprising a collagen-like domain with a high level of post-translational modifications, C1q represents a challenging protein assembly for structural biology. We report for the first time a comprehensive proteomics study of C1q combining bottom-up and top-down analyses. C1q was submitted to proteolytic digestion by a combination of collagenase and trypsin for bottom-up analyses. In addition to classical LC-MS/MS analyses, which provided reliable identification of hydroxylated proline and lysine residues, sugar loss-triggered MS(3) scans were acquired on an LTQ-Orbitrap (Linear Quadrupole Ion Trap-Orbitrap) instrument to strengthen the localization of glucosyl-galactosyl disaccharide moieties on hydroxylysine residues. Top-down analyses performed on the same instrument allowed high accuracy and high resolution mass measurements of the intact full-length C1q polypeptide chains and the iterative fragmentation of the proteins in the MS(n) mode. This study illustrates the usefulness of combining the two complementary analytical approaches to obtain a detailed characterization of the post-translational modification pattern of the collagen-like domain of C1q and highlights the structural heterogeneity of individual molecules. Most importantly, three lysine residues of the collagen-like domain, namely Lys(59) (A chain), Lys(61) (B chain), and Lys(58) (C chain), were unambiguously shown to be completely unmodified. These lysine residues are located about halfway along the collagen-like fibers. They are thus fully available and in an appropriate position to interact with the C1r and C1s protease partners of C1q and are therefore likely to play an essential role in C1 assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delphine Pflieger
- Laboratoire Analyse et Modélisation pour la Biologie et l'Environnement, CNRS UMR 8587, Université d'Evry-Val-d'Essonne, Evry, France.
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15
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Huang Z, Zhang L. Chemical structures of water-soluble polysaccharides from Rhizoma Panacis Japonici. Carbohydr Res 2009; 344:1136-40. [PMID: 19410242 DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2009.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2008] [Revised: 02/07/2009] [Accepted: 02/19/2009] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Five polysaccharide samples, coded as RPS1, RPS2, RPS3, RPS4, and RPS5, were isolated stepwise from Rhizoma Panacis Japonici (RPJ) by using 0.15M NaCl aqueous solution at 25 degrees C, boiling water at 120 degrees C, 0.5M NaOH/0.01M NaBH(4) at 10 degrees C, 1.0M NaOH/0.02M NaBH(4) at 10 degrees C, and 19M HCOOH at 4 degrees C, respectively. The yields were 0.39%, 1.08%, 2.41%, 0.32%, and 0.04% for RPS1 to RPS5, respectively. The chemical structures of the polysaccharides were highly branched alpha-(1-->4)-D-glucan heteropolysaccharides and the values of degree of branch (DB) were in the range of 35-45% for RPS1 to RPS5. All of the polysaccharides were water soluble, and their solubility decreased from RPS1 to RPS5. The weight average molecular mass were 3.5 x 10(4), 1.47 x 10(5), 1.24 x 10(6), 9.26 x 10(5), and 1.36 x 10(6) for RPS1 to RPS5, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiping Huang
- Department of Chemistry, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
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16
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Xiang M, Xu X, Liu F, Li N, Li KA. Gold Nanoparticle Based Plasmon Resonance Light-Scattering Method as a New Approach for Glycogen−Biomacromolecule Interactions. J Phys Chem B 2009; 113:2734-8. [DOI: 10.1021/jp8065822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Minghui Xiang
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences (BNLMS), Key laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Ministry of Education, Institute of Analytical Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Xiao Xu
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences (BNLMS), Key laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Ministry of Education, Institute of Analytical Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Feng Liu
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences (BNLMS), Key laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Ministry of Education, Institute of Analytical Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Na Li
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences (BNLMS), Key laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Ministry of Education, Institute of Analytical Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Ke-An Li
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences (BNLMS), Key laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Ministry of Education, Institute of Analytical Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
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17
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Fermas S, Gonnet F, Sutton A, Charnaux N, Mulloy B, Du Y, Baleux F, Daniel R. Sulfated oligosaccharides (heparin and fucoidan) binding and dimerization of stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1/CXCL 12) are coupled as evidenced by affinity CE-MS analysis. Glycobiology 2008; 18:1054-64. [PMID: 18796646 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwn088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemokine stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1) is a potent chemoattractant involved in leukocyte trafficking and metastasis. Heparan sulfate on the cell surface binds SDF-1 and may modulate its function as a coreceptor of this chemokine. A major effect of the glycosaminoglycan binding may be on the quaternary structure of SDF-1, which has been controversially reported as a monomer or a dimer. We have investigated the effect of sulfated oligosaccharides on the oligomerization of SDF-1 and of its mutated form SDF-1 (3/6), using affinity capillary electrophoresis (ACE) hyphenated to mass spectrometry (MS). Coupled to MS, ACE allowed the study for the first time of the effect of size-defined oligosaccharides on the quaternary organization of SDF-1 in muM range concentrations, i.e., lower values than the mM values previously reported in NMR, light scattering, and ultracentrifugation experiments. Our results showed that in the absence of sulfated oligosaccharides, SDF-1 is mostly monomeric in solution. However, dimer formation was observed upon interaction with heparin-sulfated oligosaccharides despite the mM Kd values for dimerization. A SDF-1/oligosaccharide 2/1 complex was detected, indicating that oligosaccharide binding promoted the dimerization of SDF-1. Heparin tetrasaccharide but not disaccharide promoted dimer formation, suggesting that the dimer required to be stabilized by a long enough bound oligosaccharide. The SDF-1/oligosaccharide 1/1 complex was only observed with heparin disaccharide and fucoidan pentasaccharide, pointing out the role of specific structural determinants in promoting dimer formation. These results underline the importance of dimerization induced by glycosaminoglycans for chemokine functionality.
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18
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Roumenina L, Bureeva S, Kantardjiev A, Karlinsky D, Andia-Pravdivy JE, Sim R, Kaplun A, Popov M, Kishore U, Atanasov B. Complement C1q-target proteins recognition is inhibited by electric moment effectors. J Mol Recognit 2008; 20:405-15. [PMID: 17929239 DOI: 10.1002/jmr.853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Classical complement pathway is an important innate immune mechanism, which is usually triggered by binding of C1q to immunoglobulins, pentraxins and other target molecules. Although the activation of the classical pathway is crucial in the host defence, its undesirable and uncontrolled activation can lead to tissue damage. Thus, understanding the molecular basis of complement activation and its inhibition are of great biomedical importance. Recently, we proposed a mechanism for target recognition and classical pathway activation by C1q, which is likely governed by calcium-controlled reorientation of macromolecular electric moment vectors. Here we sought to define the mechanism of C1q inhibition by low molecular weight disulphate compounds that bind to the globular (gC1q) domain, using experimental, computational docking and theoretical modelling approaches. Our experimental results demonstrate that betulin disulphate (B2S) and 9,9-bis(4'-hydroxyphenyl)fluorene disulphate (F2S) inhibit the interaction of C1q and its recombinant globular modules with target molecules IgG1, C-reactive protein (CRP) and long pentraxin 3 (PTX3). In most C1q-inhibitor docked complexes, there is a reduction of electric moment scalar values and similarly altered direction of electric/dipole moment vectors. This could explain the inhibitory effect by impaired electrostatic steering, lacking optimal target recognition and formation of functional complex. In the presence of the inhibitor, the tilt of gC1q domains is likely to be blocked by the altered direction of the electric moment vector. Thus, the transition from the inactive (closed) towards the active (open) conformation of C1q (i.e. the complement activation signal transmission) will be impaired and the cascade initiation disrupted. These results could serve as a starting point for the exploration of a new form of 'electric moment inhibitors/effectors'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lubka Roumenina
- Department of Biochemistry, Sofia University, St. Kliment Ohridski, 8 Dragan Tsankov St., Sofia 1164, Bulgaria
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19
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Roumenina LT, Popov KT, Bureeva SV, Kojouharova M, Gadjeva M, Rabheru S, Thakrar R, Kaplun A, Kishore U. Interaction of the globular domain of human C1q with Salmonella typhimurium lipopolysaccharide. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2008; 1784:1271-6. [PMID: 18513495 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2008.04.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2007] [Revised: 04/25/2008] [Accepted: 04/29/2008] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Gram-negative bacteria can bind complement protein C1q in an antibody-independent manner and activate classical pathway via their lipopolysaccharides (LPS). Earlier studies have implicated the collagen-like region of human C1q in binding LPS. In recent years, a number of C1q target molecules, previously considered to interact with collagen-like region of C1q, have been shown to bind via the globular domain (gC1q). Here we report, using recombinant forms of the globular head regions of C1q A, B and C chains, that LPS derived from Salmonella typhimurium interact specifically with the B-chain of the gC1q domain in a calcium-dependent manner. LPS and IgG-binding sites on the gC1q domain appear to be overlapping and this interaction can be inhibited by a synthetic C1q inhibitor, suggesting common interacting mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lubka T Roumenina
- Department of Biochemistry, Sofia University, St. Kliment Ohridski, 8 Dragan Tsankov St., Sofia 1164, Bulgaria
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20
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Pagh R, Duus K, Laursen I, Hansen PR, Mangor J, Thielens N, Arlaud GJ, Kongerslev L, Højrup P, Houen G. The chaperone and potential mannan-binding lectin (MBL) co-receptor calreticulin interacts with MBL through the binding site for MBL-associated serine proteases. FEBS J 2008; 275:515-26. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2007.06218.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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21
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Azofeifa K, Angulo Y, Lomonte B. Ability of fucoidan to prevent muscle necrosis induced by snake venom myotoxins: comparison of high- and low-molecular weight fractions. Toxicon 2007; 51:373-80. [PMID: 18061642 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2007.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2007] [Revised: 10/18/2007] [Accepted: 10/19/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Fucoidan, a natural polysaccharide extracted from brown seaweed, inhibits the myotoxic phospholipases A(2) present in the venoms of crotalid snakes. This study evaluated the influence of molecular weight on the ability of fucoidan to prevent muscle necrosis when rapidly administered after injection of a purified myotoxin or crude venom of Bothrops asper, in a mouse model. It was hypothesized that smaller fucoidan fragments, being of higher diffusibility to tissues, might have a better neutralizing efficiency in vivo. Fucoidan was subjected to acid hydrolysis to obtain low-molecular weight fragments (F(L)), or to gel filtration to isolate its high-molecular weight fraction (F(H)). These two preparations were standardized to the same neutralizing potency by preincubation assays, and subsequently tested in vivo, by independent administration assays. Local i.m. administration of either F(H) or F(L), immediately after i.m. injection of myotoxin II, prevented nearly 50% of muscle necrosis, albeit with no difference between the two preparations. Muscle necrosis was not reduced when either F(H) or F(L) was administered by i.v. route, immediately after i.m. toxin injection. When tested against crude venom, which contains several myotoxin isoforms, the immediate in situ i.m. injection of F(H) still inhibited myonecrosis by nearly one-half of the effect recorded in the untreated group, whereas F(L) was ineffective. It is concluded that, in this model, and in contrast to expectations, the use of smaller fucoidan fragments to prevent muscle damage induced by snake venom myotoxins is not advantageous, when compared with larger fucoidan molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karol Azofeifa
- Facultad de Microbiología, Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 2060, Costa Rica
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22
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Akashi S. Investigation of molecular interaction within biological macromolecular complexes by mass spectrometry. Med Res Rev 2006; 26:339-68. [PMID: 16463282 DOI: 10.1002/med.20051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The advent of electrospray ionization (ESI) and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) has accelerated structural studies of biological macromolecular complexes. At present, mass spectrometry can provide accurate mass values not only of individual biological macromolecules but also of their assemblies. Furthermore, it can also give information on the interface sites of the biological macromolecular complexes. The present article focuses on the role of mass spectrometry in the investigation of biological molecular interactions, such as protein-protein, protein-DNA, and protein-ligand interactions, which play essential roles in various biological events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoko Akashi
- International Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Yokohama City University, Tsurumi-ku, Kanagawa, Japan.
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23
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Roumenina LT, Ruseva MM, Zlatarova A, Ghai R, Kolev M, Olova N, Gadjeva M, Agrawal A, Bottazzi B, Mantovani A, Reid KBM, Kishore U, Kojouharova MS. Interaction of C1q with IgG1, C-reactive protein and pentraxin 3: mutational studies using recombinant globular head modules of human C1q A, B, and C chains. Biochemistry 2006; 45:4093-104. [PMID: 16566583 PMCID: PMC3874390 DOI: 10.1021/bi052646f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
C1q is the first subcomponent of the classical complement pathway that can interact with a range of biochemically and structurally diverse self and nonself ligands. The globular domain of C1q (gC1q), which is the ligand-recognition domain, is a heterotrimeric structure composed of the C-terminal regions of A (ghA), B (ghB), and C (ghC) chains. The expression and functional characterization of ghA, ghB, and ghC modules have revealed that each chain has specific and differential binding properties toward C1q ligands. It is largely considered that C1q-ligand interactions are ionic in nature; however, the complementary ligand-binding sites on C1q and the mechanisms of interactions are still unclear. To identify the residues on the gC1q domain that are likely to be involved in ligand recognition, we have generated a number of substitution mutants of ghA, ghB, and ghC modules and examined their interactions with three selected ligands: IgG1, C-reactive protein (CRP), and pentraxin 3 (PTX3). Our results suggest that charged residues belonging to the apex of the gC1q heterotrimer (with participation of all three chains) as well as the side of the ghB are crucial for C1q binding to these ligands, and their contribution to each interaction is different. It is likely that a set of charged residues from the gC1q surface participate via different ionic and hydrogen bonds with corresponding residues from the ligand, instead of forming separate binding sites. Thus, a recently proposed model suggesting the rotation of the gC1q domain upon ligand recognition may be extended to C1q interaction with CRP and PTX3 in addition to IgG1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lubka T. Roumenina
- Department of Biochemistry, Sofia University, St. Kliment Ohridski, 8 Dragan Tsankov Street, Sofia 1164, Bulgaria
| | - Marieta M. Ruseva
- Department of Biochemistry, Sofia University, St. Kliment Ohridski, 8 Dragan Tsankov Street, Sofia 1164, Bulgaria
| | - Alexandra Zlatarova
- Department of Biochemistry, Sofia University, St. Kliment Ohridski, 8 Dragan Tsankov Street, Sofia 1164, Bulgaria
| | - Rohit Ghai
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Justus-Liebig-University, Frankfurter Strasse 107, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Martin Kolev
- Department of Biochemistry, Sofia University, St. Kliment Ohridski, 8 Dragan Tsankov Street, Sofia 1164, Bulgaria
| | - Neli Olova
- Department of Biochemistry, Sofia University, St. Kliment Ohridski, 8 Dragan Tsankov Street, Sofia 1164, Bulgaria
| | - Mihaela Gadjeva
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Alok Agrawal
- Department of Pharmacology, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, Tennessee 37614
| | - Barbara Bottazzi
- Istituto Clinico Humanitas, Rozzano Milan, and Institute of General Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Milan, Italy
| | - Alberto Mantovani
- Istituto Clinico Humanitas, Rozzano Milan, and Institute of General Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Milan, Italy
| | - Kenneth B. M. Reid
- Medical Research Council Immunochemistry Unit, Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, U. K
| | - Uday Kishore
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Justus-Liebig-University, Frankfurter Strasse 107, 35392 Giessen, Germany
- Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Headington, Oxford OX3 9DS, U. K
- Corresponding author. Phone: +44-1865-222325. Fax: +44-1865-222402; +49-641-9941259.
| | - Mihaela S. Kojouharova
- Department of Biochemistry, Sofia University, St. Kliment Ohridski, 8 Dragan Tsankov Street, Sofia 1164, Bulgaria
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