Electrostatic Effects on the Stability of Discoidal High-Density Lipoproteins

Effect of imidazolium based ionic liquids on CO-association dynamics and thermodynamic stability of Ferrocytochrome c

Analysis of kinetic and thermodynamic parameters measured for CO-association reaction of Ferrocytochrome c (Ferrocyt c) under variable concentrations of 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium with varying anion ([Bmim]X) (X = Cl^-, I^-, Br^-, HSO₄^-) at pH 7 revealed that the low concentration of [Bmim]X (≤0.5 M) constrains the CO-association dynamics of Ferrocyt c and typically follows the order: [Bmim]HSO₄ > [Bmim]Cl > [Bmim]Br > [Bmim]I. At relatively higher concentrations (>0.5), the chaotropic action of [Bmim]⁺ dominates which consequently increases the thermal-fluctuations responsible to denature the protein and thus accelerates the speed of CO-association reaction. Analysis of thermal denaturation curves of Ferrocyt c measured at different concentrations of [Bmim]X revealed that the [Bmim]X decreases the thermodynamic stability of protein and typically follows the order: [Bmim]I > [Bmim]Br > [Bmim]Cl > [Bmim]CH₃COO > [Bmim]HSO₄, demonstrating that the effect of [Bmim]X on thermodynamic stability of protein is not in accordance to Hofmeister series effect of anions because instead of increasing the kosmotropic anion carrying [Bmim]X ([Bmim]CH₃COO and [Bmim]HSO₄) also decreases the thermodynamic stability of protein.

Formation of size-controlled, denaturation-resistant lipid nanodiscs by an amphiphilic self-polymerizing peptide

Nanodiscs are discoidal particles with a planar phospholipid bilayer enwrapped by proteins such as apolipoprotein A-I. Nanodiscs have been widely used for analyzing structures and functions of membrane proteins by dispersing them in solution. They are expected to be used as drug carriers and therapeutic agents. Amphiphilic peptides are known to form nanodiscs. However, the lipid-peptide nanodiscs are relatively unstable in solution, making them unsuitable for many applications. Here, we report the synthesis of an amphiphilic self-polymerizing peptide termed ASPP1, which polymerizes by intermolecular native chemical ligation reactions. ASPP1 spontaneously formed nanodiscs when added to phospholipid vesicles without using detergents. The diameter of the planar lipid bilayer in the nanodiscs was controlled by the lipid:peptide molar ratio. ASPP1-nanodiscs exhibited greater stability at high temperatures or in the presence of urea than nanodiscs formed by the non-polymerizing amphiphilic peptide or apolipoprotein A-I. Average and maximal degrees of ASPP1 polymerization were 2.4 and 12, respectively. Self-polymerization of the peptide appears to be responsible for stabilization of the nanodiscs. Our results open a new avenue for the development of nanodisc technology.

Structural stability and functional remodeling of high-density lipoproteins

Lipoproteins are protein-lipid nanoparticles that transport lipids in circulation and are central in atherosclerosis and other disorders of lipid metabolism. Apolipoproteins form flexible structural scaffolds and important functional ligands on the particle surface and direct lipoprotein metabolism. Lipoproteins undergo multiple rounds of metabolic remodeling that is crucial to lipid transport. Important aspects of this remodeling, including apolipoprotein dissociation and particle fusion, are mimicked in thermal or chemical denaturation and are modulated by free energy barriers. Here we review the biophysical studies that revealed the kinetic mechanism of lipoprotein stabilization and unraveled its structural basis. The main focus is on high-density lipoprotein (HDL). An inverse correlation between stability and functions of various HDLs in cholesterol transport suggests the functional role of structural disorder. A mechanism for the conformational adaptation of the major HDL proteins, apoA-I and apoA-II, to the increasing lipid load is proposed. Together, these studies help understand why HDL forms discrete subclasses separated by kinetic barriers, which have distinct composition, conformation and functional properties. Understanding these properties may help improve HDL quality and develop novel therapies for cardiovascular disease.

Human Plasma Very Low-Density Lipoproteins Are Stabilized by Electrostatic Interactions and Destabilized by Acidic pH

Very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) are precursors of low-density lipoproteins (LDL, or “bad cholesterol”). Factors affecting structural integrity of VLDL are important for their metabolism. To assess the role of electrostatic interactions in VLDL stability, we determined how solvent ionic conditions affect the heat-induced VLDL remodeling. This remodeling involves VLDL fusion, rupture, and fission of apolipoprotein E-containing high-density lipoprotein-(HDL-) like particles similar to those formed during VLDL-to-LDL maturation. Circular dichroism and turbidity show that increasing sodium salt concentration in millimolar range reduces VLDL stability and its enthalpic component. Consequently, favorable electrostatic interactions stabilize VLDL. Reduction in pH from 7.4 to 6.0 reduces VLDL stability, with further destabilization detected at pH < 6, which probably results from titration of the N-terminal α-amino groups and free fatty acids. This destabilization is expected to facilitate endosomal degradation of VLDL, promote their coalescence into lipid droplets in atherosclerotic plaques, and affect their potential use as drug carriers.

Pressure perturbation calorimetry of apolipoproteins in solution and in model lipoproteins

High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) are complexes of lipids and proteins (termed apolipoproteins) that remove cell cholesterol and protect from atherosclerosis. Apolipoproteins contain amphipathic alpha-helices that have high content (> or = 1/3) and distinct distribution of charged and apolar residues, adopt molten globule-like conformations in solution, and bind to lipid surfaces. We report the first pressure perturbation calorimetry (PPC) study of apolipoproteins. In solution, the main HDL protein, apoA-I, shows relatively large volume contraction, DeltaV(unf) = -0.33%, and an apparent reduction in thermal expansivity upon unfolding, Deltaalpha(unf) < or = 0, which has not been observed in other proteins. We propose that these values are dominated by increased charged residue hydration upon alpha-helical unfolding, which may result from disruption of multiple salt bridges. At 5 degrees C, apoA-I shows large thermal expansion coefficient, alpha(5 degrees) = 15.10(-4) K(-1), that rapidly declines upon heating from 5 to 40 degrees C, alpha(40 degrees) - alpha(5 degrees) = -4.10(-4) K(-1); apolipoprotein C-I shows similar values of alpha(5 degrees) and alpha(40 degrees). These values are larger than in globular proteins. They indicate dominant effect of charged residue hydration, which may modulate functional apolipoprotein interactions with a broad range of their protein and lipid ligands. The first PPC analysis of a protein-lipid complex is reported, which focuses on the chain melting transition in model HDL containing apoA-I or apoC-I, dimyristoyl phosphatidylcholine, and 0-20% cholesterol. The results may provide new insights into volumetric properties of HDL that modulate metabolic lipoprotein remodeling during cholesterol transport.

Effects of cholesterol on thermal stability of discoidal high density lipoproteins

Reverse cholesterol transport in plasma involves variations in HDL cholesterol concentration. To understand physicochemical and functional implications of such variations, we analyzed stability of reconstituted HDL containing human apolipoproteins (apoA-I, apoA-II, or apoC-I), phosphatidylcholines varying in chain length (12-18 carbons) and unsaturation (0 or 1), and 0-35 mol% cholesterol. Lipoprotein heat denaturation was monitored by circular dichroism for protein unfolding/dissociation and by light scattering for particle fusion. We found that cholesterol stabilizes relatively unstable complexes; for example, incorporation of 10-30 mol% cholesterol in apoC-I:dimyristoyl phosphatidylcholine complexes increased their kinetic stability by deltaDeltaG* congruent with 1 kcal/mol. In more stable complexes containing larger proteins and/or longer-chain lipids, incorporation of 10% cholesterol did not significantly alter the disk stability; however, 15% or more cholesterol destabilized the apoA-I-containing complexes and led to vesicle formation. Thus, cholesterol tends to stabilize less stable lipoproteins, apparently by enhancing favorable packing interactions, but in more stable lipoproteins, where such interactions are already highly optimized, the stabilizing effect of cholesterol decreases and, eventually, becomes destabilizing. These results help uncouple the functional roles of particle stability and chain fluidity and suggest that structural disorder in HDL surface, rather than chain fluidity, is an important physicochemical determinant of HDL function.

Acute-phase-HDL remodeling by heparan sulfate generates a novel lipoprotein with exceptional cholesterol efflux activity from macrophages

During episodes of acute-inflammation high-density lipoproteins (HDL), the carrier of so-called good cholesterol, experiences a major change in apolipoprotein composition and becomes acute-phase HDL (AP-HDL). This altered, but physiologically important, HDL has an increased binding affinity for macrophages that is dependent on cell surface heparan sulfate (HS). While exploring the properties of AP-HDLratioHS interactions we discovered that HS caused significant remodeling of AP-HDL. The physical nature of this change in structure and its potential importance for cholesterol efflux from cholesterol-loaded macrophages was therefore investigated. In the presence of heparin, or HS, AP-HDL solutions at pH 5.2 became turbid within minutes. Analysis by centrifugation and gel electrophoresis indicated that AP-HDL was remodeled generating novel lipid poor particles composed only of apolipoprotein AI, which we designate beta2. This remodeling is dependent on pH, glycosaminoglycan type, is promoted by Ca(2+) and is independent of protease or lipase activity. Compared to HDL and AP-HDL, remodeled AP-HDL (S-HDL-SAA), containing beta2 particles, demonstrated a 3-fold greater cholesterol efflux activity from cholesterol-loaded macrophage. Because the identified conditions causing this change in AP-HDL structure and function can exist physiologically at the surface of the macrophage, or in its endosomes, we postulate that AP-HDL contains latent functionalities that become apparent and active when it associates with macrophage cell surface/endosomal HS. In this way initial steps in the reverse cholesterol transport pathway are focused at sites of injury to mobilize cholesterol from macrophages that are actively participating in the phagocytosis of damaged membranes rich in cholesterol. The mechanism may also be of relevance to aspects of atherogenesis.

Effects of acyl chain length, unsaturation, and pH on thermal stability of model discoidal HDLs

HDLs prevent atherosclerosis by removing excess cell cholesterol. Lipid composition affects HDL functions in cholesterol removal, yet its effects on the disk stability remain unclear. We hypothesize that reduced length or increased cis-unsaturation of phosphatidylcholine acyl chains destabilize discoidal HDL and promote protein dissociation and lipoprotein fusion. To test this hypothesis, we determined thermal stability of binary complexes reconstituted from apoC-I and diacyl PCs containing 12-18 carbons with 0-2 cis-double bonds. Kinetic analysis using circular dichroism shows that, for fully saturated PCs, chain length increase by two carbons stabilizes lipoprotein by deltaDeltaG* (37 degrees C) congruent with 1.4 kcal/mol, suggesting that hydrophobic interactions dominate the disk stability; distinct effects of pH and salt indicate contribution of electrostatic interactions. Similarly, apoA-I-containing disks show increased stability with increasing chain length. Acyl chain unsaturation reduces disk stability. In summary, stability of discoidal HDL correlates directly with fatty acyl chain length and saturation: the longer and more fully saturated are the chains, the more extensive are the stabilizing lipid-protein and lipid-lipid interactions and the higher is the free energy barrier for protein dissociation and lipoprotein fusion. This sheds new light on the existing data of cholesterol efflux to discoidal HDL and suggests that moderate lipoprotein destabilization facilitates cholesterol insertion.

Effects of protein oxidation on the structure and stability of model discoidal high-density lipoproteins

High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) prevent atherosclerosis by removing cholesterol from macrophages and by providing antioxidants for low-density lipoproteins. Oxidation of HDLs affects their functions via the complex mechanisms that involve multiple protein and lipid modifications. To differentiate between the roles of oxidative modifications in HDL proteins and lipids, we analyzed the effects of selective protein oxidation by hypochlorite (HOCl) on the structure, stability, and remodeling of discoidal HDLs reconstituted from human apolipoproteins (A-I, A-II, or C-I) and phosphatidylcholines. Gel electrophoresis and electron microscopy revealed that, at ambient temperatures, protein oxidation in discoidal complexes promotes their remodeling into larger and smaller particles. Thermal denaturation monitored by far-UV circular dichroism and light scattering in melting and kinetic experiments shows that protein oxidation destabilizes discoidal lipoproteins and accelerates protein unfolding, dissociation, and lipoprotein fusion. This is likely due to the reduced affinity of the protein for lipid resulting from oxidation of Met and aromatic residues in the lipid-binding faces of amphipathic alpha-helices and to apolipoprotein cross-linking into dimers and trimers on the particle surface. We conclude that protein oxidation destabilizes HDL disk assembly and accelerates its remodeling and fusion. This result, which is not limited to model discoidal but also extends to plasma spherical HDL, helps explain the complex effects of oxidation on plasma lipoproteins.

Dynamic light scattering and optical absorption spectroscopy study of pH and temperature stabilities of the extracellular hemoglobin of Glossoscolex paulistus

The extracellular hemoglobin of Glossoscolex paulistus (HbGp) is constituted of subunits containing heme groups, monomers and trimers, and nonheme structures, called linkers, and the whole protein has a minimum molecular mass near 3.1 x 10(6) Da. This and other proteins of the same family are useful model systems for developing blood substitutes due to their extracellular nature, large size, and resistance to oxidation. HbGp samples were studied by dynamic light scattering (DLS). In the pH range 6.0-8.0, HbGp is stable and has a monodisperse size distribution with a z-average hydrodynamic diameter (D(h)) of 27 +/- 1 nm. A more alkaline pH induced an irreversible dissociation process, resulting in a smaller D(h) of 10 +/- 1 nm. The decrease in D(h) suggests a complete hemoglobin dissociation. Gel filtration chromatography was used to show unequivocally the oligomeric dissociation observed at alkaline pH. At pH 9.0, the dissociation kinetics is slow, taking a minimum of 24 h to be completed. Dissociation rate constants progressively increase at higher pH, becoming, at pH 10.5, not detectable by DLS. Protein temperature stability was also pH-dependent. Melting curves for HbGp showed oligomeric dissociation and protein denaturation as a function of pH. Dissociation temperatures were lower at higher pH. Kinetic studies were also performed using ultraviolet-visible absorption at the Soret band. Optical absorption monitors the hemoglobin autoxidation while DLS gives information regarding particle size changes in the process of protein dissociation. Absorption was analyzed at different pH values in the range 9.0-9.8 and at two temperatures, 25 degrees C and 38 degrees C. At 25 degrees C, for pH 9.0 and 9.3, the kinetics monitored by ultraviolet-visible absorption presents a monoexponential behavior, whereas for pH 9.6 and 9.8, a biexponential behavior was observed, consistent with heme heterogeneity at more alkaline pH. The kinetics at 38 degrees C is faster than that at 25 degrees C and is biexponential in the whole pH range. DLS dissociation rates are faster than the autoxidation dissociation rates at 25 degrees C. Autoxidation and dissociation processes are intimately related, so that oligomeric protein dissociation promotes the increase of autoxidation rate and vice versa. The effect of dissociation is to change the kinetic character of the autoxidation of hemes from monoexponential to biexponential, whereas the reverse change is not as effective. This work shows that DLS can be used to follow, quantitatively and in real time, the kinetics of changes in the oligomerization of biologic complex supramolecular systems. Such information is relevant for the development of mimetic systems to be used as blood substitutes.

Purification and characterization of two highly thermophilic alkaline lipases from Thermosyntropha lipolytica

Two thermostable lipases were isolated and characterized from Thermosyntropha lipolytica DSM 11003, an anaerobic, thermophilic, alkali-tolerant bacterium which grows syntrophically with methanogens on lipids such as olive oil, utilizing only the liberated fatty acid moieties but not the glycerol. Lipases LipA and LipB were purified from culture supernatants to gel electrophoretic homogeneity by ammonium sulfate precipitation and hydrophobic interaction column chromatography. The apparent molecular masses of LipA and LipB determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis were 50 and 57 kDa, respectively. The temperature for maximal activity of LipA and LipB was around 96 degrees C, which is, so far as is known, the highest temperature for maximal activity among lipases, and the pH optima for growth determined at 25 degrees C (pH(25 degrees C) optima) were 9.4 and 9.6, respectively. LipA and LipB at 100 degrees C and pH(25 degrees C) 8.0 retained 50% activity after 6 and 2 h of incubation, respectively. Both enzymes exhibited high activity with long-chain fatty acid glycerides, yielding maximum activity with trioleate (C(18:1)) and, among the p-nitrophenyl esters, with p-nitrophenyl laurate. Hydrolysis of glycerol ester bonds occurred at positions 1 and 3. The activities of both lipases were totally inhibited by 10 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride and 10 mM EDTA. Metal analysis indicated that both LipA and LipB contain 1 Ca2+ and one Mn2+ ion per monomeric enzyme unit. The addition of 1 mM MnCl2 to dialyzed enzyme preparations enhanced the activities at 96 degrees C of both LipA and LipB by threefold and increased the durations of their thermal stability at 60 degrees C and 75 degrees C, respectively, by 4 h.

The exchangeable apolipoprotein ApoC-I promotes membrane fusion of hepatitis C virus

Cell entry of hepatitis C virus (HCV) is strikingly linked to lipoproteins and their receptors. Particularly, high density lipoprotein (HDL) enhances infectivity of HCV by involving the lipid-transfer function of the scavenger receptor BI, a receptor for both HDL and HCV. Here, we demonstrate that apoC-I, an exchangeable apolipoprotein that predominantly resides in HDL, specifically enhances HCVcc and HCVpp infectivity and increases the fusion rates between viral and target membranes via a direct interaction with the HCV surface. We identify the hypervariable region 1, located at the N terminus of the HCV E2 glycoprotein, as an essential viral component that modulates apoC-I-mediated enhancement of HCV fusion properties. The affinity of apoC-I for the HCV membrane may predispose it for fusion with a target membrane via alterations of its outer phospholipid layer. Conversely, we found that excess apoC-I provided as lipoprotein-free protein induces the disruption of the HCV membrane and subsequent loss of infectivity. Furthermore, our data indicate that HDL neither interacts nor spontaneously exchanges apoC-I with HCV virions. Because apoC-I is not present in serum as a lipoprotein-free form, our results suggest that HDL-embedded apoC-I could be released from the lipoprotein particle through a fine-tuned mechanism regulated via a triple interplay between hypervariable region 1, HDL, and scavenger receptor BI, resulting in optimal apoC-I recruitment on the viral membrane. These results provide the first description of a host serum factor helping the fusion process of an enveloped virus.

Role of secondary structure in protein-phospholipid surface interactions: reconstitution and denaturation of apolipoprotein C-I:DMPC complexes

Binding of protein to a phospholipid surface is commonly mediated by amphipathic alpha-helices. To understand the role of alpha-helical structure in protein-lipid interactions, we used discoidal lipoproteins reconstituted from dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC) and human apolipoprotein C-I (apoC-I, 6 kDa) or its mutants containing single Pro substitutions along the sequence and differing in their alpha-helical content in solution (0-48%) and on DMPC (40-75%). Thermal denaturation revealed that lipoprotein stability correlates weakly with the protein helix content: proteins with higher alpha-helical content on DMPC may form more stable complexes. Lipoprotein reconstitution upon cooling from the heat-denatured state and DMPC clearance studies revealed that protein secondary structure in solution and on DMPC correlates strongly with the maximal temperature of lipoprotein reconstitution: more helical proteins can reconstitute lipoproteins at higher temperatures. Interestingly, at Tc = 24 degrees C of the DMPC gel-to-liquid crystal transition, the clearance rate is independent of the protein helical content. Consequently, if the packing defects at the phospholipid surface are readily available (e.g., at the lipid phase boundary), insertion of protein into these defects is independent of the secondary structure in solution. However, if hydrophobic defects are limited, protein binding and insertion are aided by other surface-bound proteins and depend on their helical propensity: the larger the propensity, the faster the binding and the broader its temperature range. This positive cooperativity in binding of alpha-helices to phospholipid surface, which may result from direct and/or lipid-mediated protein-protein interactions, may be important for lipoprotein metabolism and for protein-membrane binding.

Monitoring protein aggregation during thermal unfolding in circular dichroism experiments

Thermal unfolding monitored by spectroscopy or calorimetry is widely used to determine protein stability. Equilibrium thermodynamic analysis of such unfolding is often hampered by its irreversibility, which usually results from aggregation of thermally denatured protein. In addition, heat-induced protein misfolding and aggregation often lead to formation of amyloid-like structures. We propose a convenient method to monitor in real time protein aggregation during thermal folding/ unfolding transition by recording turbidity or 90 degrees light scattering data in circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopic experiments. Since the measurements of turbidity and 90 degrees light scattering can be done simultaneously with far- or near-UV CD data collection, they require no additional time or sample and can be directly correlated with the protein conformational changes monitored by CD. The results can provide useful insights into the origins of irreversible conformational changes and test the linkage between protein unfolding or misfolding and aggregation in various macromolecular systems, including globular proteins and protein-lipid complexes described in this study, as well as a wide range of amyloid-forming proteins and peptides.