Structure of the ternary complex formed by a chemotaxis receptor signaling domain, the CheA histidine kinase, and the coupling protein CheW as determined by pulsed dipolar ESR spectroscopy

Bacterial chemoreceptor signaling complexes control kinase activity by stabilizing the catalytic domain of CheA

Motile bacteria have a chemotaxis system that enables them to sense their environment and direct their swimming toward favorable conditions. Chemotaxis involves a signaling process in which ligand binding to the extracellular domain of the chemoreceptor alters the activity of the histidine kinase, CheA, bound ~300 Å away to the distal cytoplasmic tip of the receptor, to initiate a phosphorylation cascade that controls flagellar rotation. The cytoplasmic domain of the receptor is thought to propagate this signal via changes in dynamics and/or stability, but it is unclear how these changes modulate the kinase activity of CheA. To address this question, we have used hydrogen deuterium exchange mass spectrometry to probe the structure and dynamics of CheA within functional signaling complexes of the Escherichia coli aspartate receptor cytoplasmic fragment, CheA, and CheW. Our results reveal that stabilization of the P4 catalytic domain of CheA correlates with kinase activation. Furthermore, differences in activation of the kinase that occur during sensory adaptation depend on receptor destabilization of the P3 dimerization domain of CheA. Finally, hydrogen exchange properties of the P1 domain that bears the phosphorylated histidine identify the dimer interface of P1/P1' in the CheA dimer and support an ordered sequential binding mechanism of catalysis, in which dimeric P1/P1' has productive interactions with P4 only upon nucleotide binding. Thus stabilization/destabilization of domains is a key element of the mechanism of modulating CheA kinase activity in chemotaxis, and may play a role in the control of other kinases.

Atypical chemoreceptor arrays accommodate high membrane curvature

The prokaryotic chemotaxis system is arguably the best-understood signaling pathway in biology. In all previously described species, chemoreceptors organize into a hexagonal (P6 symmetry) extended array. Here, we report an alternative symmetry (P2) of the chemotaxis apparatus that emerges from a strict linear organization of the histidine kinase CheA in Treponema denticola cells, which possesses arrays with the highest native curvature investigated thus far. Using cryo-ET, we reveal that Td chemoreceptor arrays assume an unusual arrangement of the supra-molecular protein assembly that has likely evolved to accommodate the high membrane curvature. The arrays have several atypical features, such as an extended dimerization domain of CheA and a variant CheW-CheR-like fusion protein that is critical for maintaining an ordered chemosensory apparatus. Furthermore, the previously characterized Td oxygen sensor ODP influences CheA ordering. These results suggest a greater diversity of the chemotaxis signaling system than previously thought.

Engineered chemotaxis core signaling units indicate a constrained kinase-off state

Bacterial chemoreceptors, the histidine kinase CheA, and the coupling protein CheW form transmembrane molecular arrays with remarkable sensing properties. The receptors inhibit or stimulate CheA kinase activity depending on the presence of attractants or repellants, respectively. We engineered chemoreceptor cytoplasmic regions to assume a trimer of receptor dimers configuration that formed well-defined complexes with CheA and CheW and promoted a CheA kinase-off state. These mimics of core signaling units were assembled to homogeneity and investigated by site-directed spin-labeling with pulse-dipolar electron-spin resonance spectroscopy (PDS), small-angle x-ray scattering, targeted protein cross-linking, and cryo-electron microscopy. The kinase-off state was especially stable, had relatively low domain mobility, and associated the histidine substrate and docking domains with the kinase core, thus preventing catalytic activity. Together, these data provide an experimentally restrained model for the inhibited state of the core signaling unit and suggest that chemoreceptors indirectly sequester the kinase and substrate domains to limit histidine autophosphorylation.

Cellular Stoichiometry of Chemotaxis Proteins in Sinorhizobium meliloti

Chemotaxis systems enable microbes to sense their immediate environment, moving toward beneficial stimuli and away from those that are harmful. In an effort to better understand the chemotaxis system of Sinorhizobium meliloti, a symbiont of the legume alfalfa, the cellular stoichiometries of all ten chemotaxis proteins in S. meliloti were determined. A combination of quantitative immunoblot and mass spectrometry revealed that the protein stoichiometries in S. meliloti varied greatly from those in Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis To compare protein ratios to other systems, values were normalized to the central kinase CheA. All S. meliloti chemotaxis proteins exhibited increased ratios to various degrees. The 10-fold higher molar ratio of adaptor proteins CheW1 and CheW2 to CheA might result in the formation of rings in the chemotaxis array that consist of only CheW instead of CheA and CheW in a 1:1 ratio. We hypothesize that the higher ratio of CheA to the main response regulator CheY2 is a consequence of the speed-variable motor in S. meliloti, instead of a switch-type motor. Similarly, proteins involved in signal termination are far more abundant in S. meliloti, which utilizes a phosphate sink mechanism based on CheA retrophosphorylation to inactivate the motor response regulator versus CheZ-catalyzed dephosphorylation as in E. coli and B. subtilis Finally, the abundance of CheB and CheR, which regulate chemoreceptor methylation, was increased compared to CheA, indicative of variations in the adaptation system of S. meliloti Collectively, these results mark significant differences in the composition of bacterial chemotaxis systems.IMPORTANCE The symbiotic soil bacterium Sinorhizobium meliloti contributes greatly to host-plant growth by fixing atmospheric nitrogen. The provision of nitrogen as ammonium by S. meliloti leads to increased biomass production of its legume host alfalfa and diminishes the use of environmentally harmful chemical fertilizers. To better understand the role of chemotaxis in host-microbe interaction, a comprehensive catalogue of the bacterial chemotaxis system is vital, including its composition, function, and regulation. The stoichiometry of chemotaxis proteins in S. meliloti has very few similarities to the systems in Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis In addition, total amounts of proteins are significantly lower. S. meliloti exhibits a chemotaxis system distinct from known models by incorporating new proteins as exemplified by the phosphate sink mechanism.

Protein Dynamics in Phosphoryl-Transfer Signaling Mediated by Two-Component Systems

The ability to perceive the environment, an essential attribute in living organisms, is linked to the evolution of signaling proteins that recognize specific signals and execute predetermined responses. Such proteins constitute concerted systems that can be as simple as a unique protein, able to recognize a ligand and exert a phenotypic change, or extremely complex pathways engaging dozens of different proteins which act in coordination with feedback loops and signal modulation. To understand how cells sense their surroundings and mount specific adaptive responses, we need to decipher the molecular workings of signal recognition, internalization, transfer, and conversion into chemical changes inside the cell. Protein allostery and dynamics play a central role. Here, we review recent progress on the study of two-component systems, important signaling machineries of prokaryotes and lower eukaryotes. Such systems implicate a sensory histidine kinase and a separate response regulator protein. Both components exploit protein flexibility to effect specific conformational rearrangements, modulating protein-protein interactions, and ultimately transmitting information accurately. Recent work has revealed how histidine kinases switch between discrete functional states according to the presence or absence of the signal, shifting key amino acid positions that define their catalytic activity. In concert with the cognate response regulator's allosteric changes, the phosphoryl-transfer flow during the signaling process is exquisitely fine-tuned for proper specificity, efficiency and directionality.

Regulation of the chemotaxis histidine kinase CheA: A structural perspective

Bacteria sense and respond to their environment through a highly conserved assembly of transmembrane chemoreceptors (MCPs), the histidine kinase CheA, and the coupling protein CheW, hereafter termed "the chemosensory array". In recent years, great strides have been made in understanding the architecture of the chemosensory array and how this assembly engenders sensitive and cooperative responses. Nonetheless, a central outstanding question surrounds how receptors modulate the activity of the CheA kinase, the enzymatic output of the sensory system. With a focus on recent advances, we summarize the current understanding of array structure and function to comment on the molecular mechanism by which CheA, receptors and CheW generate the high sensitivity, gain and dynamic range emblematic of bacterial chemotaxis. The complexity of the chemosensory arrays has motivated investigation with many different approaches. In particular, structural methods, genetics, cellular activity assays, nanodisc technology and cryo-electron tomography have provided advances that bridge length scales and connect molecular mechanism to cellular function. Given the high degree of component integration in the chemosensory arrays, we ultimately aim to understand how such networked molecular interactions generate a whole that is truly greater than the sum of its parts. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Molecular biophysics of membranes and membrane proteins.

Molecular characterization and interactome analysis of aerolysin (aer) gene from fish pathogen Aeromonas veronii: The pathogenicity inferred from sequence divergence and linked to histidine kinase (cheA)

Aerolysin (aer) is one of the most important and abundant virulence factors in the infection of fish by Aeromonas veronii. A comprehensive study on the molecular characterization and pathogenicity of the aer gene from 34 A. veronii isolates from diseased carp and catfish was carried out and its interactome was analysed to observe the functional correlations between aer and other proteins within the A. veronii network. The PCR-based amplification of aer from the 34 isolates of A. veronii showed more aer-positive isolates from catfish with a high pathogenic potential in the in vivo challenge test than the carp fish. The analysis of aer gene sequence from challenged fish revealed significant sequence divergence according to the types and geographical distribution of the fish. The networking analysis of aer from the model A. veronii B565 revealed histidine kinase (cheA) as the most functional interacting partner. The study of the interaction between aer from the experimental A. veronii and cheA demonstrated that the A chain of cheA plays a more important role than the corresponding B chain during contact, and a linker sequence of 15 residues controlled the entire interaction process. Therefore, cheA could be an excellent drug target for controlling A. veronii infection of fish.

Nucleotide Spin Labeling for ESR Spectroscopy of ATP-Binding Proteins

Site-directed spin labeling of proteins by chemical modification of engineered cysteine residues with the molecule MTSSL (1-Oxyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethylpyrroline-3-methyl methanethiosulfonate) has been an invaluable tool for conducting double electron electron resonance (DEER) spectroscopy experiments. However, this method is generally limited to recombinant proteins with a limited number of reactive Cys residues that when modified will not impair protein function. Here we present a method that allows for spin-labeling of protein nucleotide binding sites by adenosine diphosphate (ADP) modified with a nitroxide moiety on the β-phosphate (ADP-β-S-SL). The synthesis of this ADP analog is straightforward and isolation of pure product is readily achieved on a standard reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) system. Furthermore, analyses of isolated ADP-β-S-SL by LC-mass spectrometry confirm that the molecule is extremely stable under ambient conditions. The crystal structure of ADP-β-S-SL bound to the ATP pocket of the histidine kinase CheA reveals specific targeting of the probe, whose nitroxide moiety is mobile on the protein surface. Continuous wave and pulsed ESR measurements demonstrate the capability of ADP-β-S-SL to report on active site environment and provide reliable DEER distance constraints.

Site-Specific Incorporation of a Cu2+ Spin Label into Proteins for Measuring Distances by Pulsed Dipolar Electron Spin Resonance Spectroscopy

Pulsed dipolar electron spin resonance spectroscopy (PDS) is a powerful tool for measuring distances in solution-state macromolecules. Paramagnetic metal ions, such as Cu²⁺, are used as spin probes because they can report on metalloprotein features and can be spectroscopically distinguished from traditional nitroxide (NO)-based labels. Here, we demonstrate site-specific incorporation of Cu²⁺ into non-metalloproteins through the use of a genetically encodable non-natural amino acid, 3-pyrazolyltyrosine (PyTyr). We first incorporate PyTyr in cyan fluorescent protein to measure Cu²⁺-to-NO distances and examine the effects of solvent conditions on Cu²⁺ binding and protein aggregation. We then apply the method to characterize the complex formed by the histidine kinase CheA and its target response regulator CheY. The X-ray structure of CheY-PyTyr confirms Cu labeling at PyTyr but also reveals a secondary Cu site. Cu²⁺-to-NO and Cu²⁺-to-Cu²⁺ PDS measurements of CheY-PyTyr with nitroxide-labeled CheA provide new insights into the conformational landscape of the phosphotransfer complex and have implications for kinase regulation.

Dynamic domain arrangement of CheA-CheY complex regulates bacterial thermotaxis, as revealed by NMR

Bacteria utilize thermotaxis signal transduction proteins, including CheA, and CheY, to switch the direction of the cell movement. However, the thermally responsive machinery enabling warm-seeking behavior has not been identified. Here we examined the effects of temperature on the structure and dynamics of the full-length CheA and CheY complex, by NMR. Our studies revealed that the CheA-CheY complex exists in equilibrium between multiple states, including one state that is preferable for the autophosphorylation of CheA, and another state that is preferable for the phosphotransfer from CheA to CheY. With increasing temperature, the equilibrium shifts toward the latter state. The temperature-dependent population shift of the dynamic domain arrangement of the CheA-CheY complex induced changes in the concentrations of phosphorylated CheY that are comparable to those induced by chemical attractants or repellents. Therefore, the dynamic domain arrangement of the CheA-CheY complex functions as the primary thermally responsive machinery in warm-seeking behavior.

Single and double nitroxide labeled bis(terpyridine)-copper(ii): influence of orientation selectivity and multispin effects on PELDOR and RIDME

The structure of Jahn–Teller distorted copper–nitroxide complexes in neutral and acidic solutions is investigated using EPR distance measurements taking into account the influence of orientation selectivity and multispin effects.

Chemotactic Signaling by Single-Chain Chemoreceptors

Bacterial chemoreceptors of the methyl-accepting chemotaxis protein (MCP) family operate in commingled clusters that enable cells to detect and track environmental chemical gradients with high sensitivity and precision. MCP homodimers of different detection specificities form mixed trimers of dimers that facilitate inter-receptor communication in core signaling complexes, which in turn assemble into a large signaling network. The two subunits of each homodimeric receptor molecule occupy different locations in the core complexes. One subunit participates in trimer-stabilizing interactions at the trimer axis, the other lies on the periphery of the trimer, where it can interact with two cytoplasmic proteins: CheA, a signaling autokinase, and CheW, which couples CheA activity to receptor control. As a possible tool for independently manipulating receptor subunits in these two structural environments, we constructed and characterized fused genes for the E. coli serine chemoreceptor Tsr that encoded single-chain receptor molecules in which the C-terminus of the first Tsr subunit was covalently connected to the N-terminus of the second with a polypeptide linker. We showed with soft agar assays and with a FRET-based in vivo CheA kinase assay that single-chain Tsr~Tsr molecules could promote serine sensing and chemotaxis responses. The length of the connection between the joined subunits was critical. Linkers nine residues or shorter locked the receptor in a kinase-on state, most likely by distorting the native structure of the receptor HAMP domain. Linkers 22 or more residues in length permitted near-normal Tsr function. Few single-chain molecules were found as monomer-sized proteolytic fragments in cells, indicating that covalently joined receptor subunits were responsible for mediating the signaling responses we observed. However, cysteine-directed crosslinking, spoiling by dominant-negative Tsr subunits, and rearrangement of ligand-binding site lesions revealed subunit swapping interactions that will need to be taken into account in experimental applications of single-chain chemoreceptors.

Protein Connectivity in Chemotaxis Receptor Complexes

The chemotaxis sensory system allows bacteria such as Escherichia coli to swim towards nutrients and away from repellents. The underlying pathway is remarkably sensitive in detecting chemical gradients over a wide range of ambient concentrations. Interactions among receptors, which are predominantly clustered at the cell poles, are crucial to this sensitivity. Although it has been suggested that the kinase CheA and the adapter protein CheW are integral for receptor connectivity, the exact coupling mechanism remains unclear. Here, we present a statistical-mechanics approach to model the receptor linkage mechanism itself, building on nanodisc and electron cryotomography experiments. Specifically, we investigate how the sensing behavior of mixed receptor clusters is affected by variations in the expression levels of CheA and CheW at a constant receptor density in the membrane. Our model compares favorably with dose-response curves from in vivo Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) measurements, demonstrating that the receptor-methylation level has only minor effects on receptor cooperativity. Importantly, our model provides an explanation for the non-intuitive conclusion that the receptor cooperativity decreases with increasing levels of CheA, a core signaling protein associated with the receptors, whereas the receptor cooperativity increases with increasing levels of CheW, a key adapter protein. Finally, we propose an evolutionary advantage as explanation for the recently suggested CheW-only linker structures.

Receptor clusters of the bacterial chemotaxis sensory system act as antennae to amplify tiny changes in concentrations in the chemical environment of the cell, ultimately steering the cell towards nutrients and away from toxins. Despite bacterial chemotaxis being the most widely studied sensory pathway, the exact architecture of the receptor clusters remains speculative, with understanding suffering from a number of paradoxical observations. To address these issues with respect to the protein arrangement in the linkers connecting receptors, we present a statistical-mechanics model that combines insights from electron cryotomography on the linker architecture with results from fluorescence imaging of signaling in living cells. Although the signaling data for different expression levels of key molecular components in the linkers seems contradictory at first, our model reconciles these predictions with structural and biochemical data. Finally, we provide an evolutionary explanation for the observation that some of the incorporated linkers do not seem to transmit signals from the receptors.

Conformational Transitions that Enable Histidine Kinase Autophosphorylation and Receptor Array Integration

During bacterial chemotaxis, transmembrane chemoreceptor arrays regulate autophosphorylation of the dimeric histidine kinase CheA. The five domains of CheA (P1-P5) each play a specific role in coupling receptor stimulation to CheA activity. Biochemical and X-ray scattering studies of thermostable CheA from Thermotoga maritima determine that the His-containing substrate domain (P1) is sequestered by interactions that depend upon P1 of the adjacent subunit. Non-hydrolyzable ATP analogs (but not ATP or ADP) release P1 from the protein core (domains P3P4P5) and increase its mobility. Detachment of both P1 domains or removal of one within a dimer increases net autophosphorylation substantially at physiological temperature (55°C). However, nearly all activity is lost without the dimerization domain (P3). The linker length between P1 and P3 dictates intersubunit (trans) versus intrasubunit (cis) autophosphorylation, with the trans reaction requiring a minimum length of 47 residues. A new crystal structure of the most active dimerization-plus-kinase unit (P3P4) reveals trans directing interactions between the tether connecting P3 to P2-P1 and the adjacent ATP-binding (P4) domain. The orientation of P4 relative to P3 in the P3P4 structure supports a planar CheA conformation that is required by membrane array models, and it suggests that the ATP lid of CheA may be poised to interact with receptors and coupling proteins. Collectively, these data suggest that the P1 domains are restrained in the off-state as a result of cross-subunit interactions. Perturbations at the nucleotide-binding pocket increase P1 mobility and access of the substrate His to P4-bound ATP.

CryoEM and computer simulations reveal a novel kinase conformational switch in bacterial chemotaxis signaling

Chemotactic responses in bacteria require large, highly ordered arrays of sensory proteins to mediate the signal transduction that ultimately controls cell motility. A mechanistic understanding of the molecular events underlying signaling, however, has been hampered by the lack of a high-resolution structural description of the extended array. Here, we report a novel reconstitution of the array, involving the receptor signaling domain, histidine kinase CheA, and adaptor protein CheW, as well as a density map of the core-signaling unit at 11.3 Å resolution, obtained by cryo-electron tomography and sub-tomogram averaging. Extracting key structural constraints from our density map, we computationally construct and refine an atomic model of the core array structure, exposing novel interfaces between the component proteins. Using all-atom molecular dynamics simulations, we further reveal a distinctive conformational change in CheA. Mutagenesis and chemical cross-linking experiments confirm the importance of the conformational dynamics of CheA for chemotactic function.

Internal sense of direction: sensing and signaling from cytoplasmic chemoreceptors

SUMMARY

Chemoreceptors sense environmental signals and drive chemotactic responses in Bacteria and Archaea. There are two main classes of chemoreceptors: integral inner membrane and soluble cytoplasmic proteins. The latter were identified more recently than integral membrane chemoreceptors and have been studied much less thoroughly. These cytoplasmic chemoreceptors are the subject of this review. Our analysis determined that 14% of bacterial and 43% of archaeal chemoreceptors are cytoplasmic, based on currently sequenced genomes. Cytoplasmic chemoreceptors appear to share the same key structural features as integral membrane chemoreceptors, including the formations of homodimers, trimers of dimers, and 12-nm hexagonal arrays within the cell. Cytoplasmic chemoreceptors exhibit varied subcellular locations, with some localizing to the poles and others appearing both cytoplasmic and polar. Some cytoplasmic chemoreceptors adopt more exotic locations, including the formations of exclusively internal clusters or moving dynamic clusters that coalesce at points of contact with other cells. Cytoplasmic chemoreceptors presumably sense signals within the cytoplasm and bear diverse signal input domains that are mostly N terminal to the domain that defines chemoreceptors, the so-called MA domain. Similar to the case for transmembrane receptors, our analysis suggests that the most common signal input domain is the PAS (Per-Arnt-Sim) domain, but a variety of other N-terminal domains exist. It is also common, however, for cytoplasmic chemoreceptors to have C-terminal domains that may function for signal input. The most common of these is the recently identified chemoreceptor zinc binding (CZB) domain, found in 8% of all cytoplasmic chemoreceptors. The widespread nature and diverse signal input domains suggest that these chemoreceptors can monitor a variety of cytoplasmically based signals, most of which remain to be determined.

Copper-based pulsed dipolar ESR spectroscopy as a probe of protein conformation linked to disease states

We demonstrate the ability of pulsed dipolar electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy (PDS) to report on the conformation of Cu-Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1) through the sensitive measurement of dipolar interactions between inherent Cu(2+) ions. Although the extent and the anisotropy of the Cu ESR spectrum provides challenges for PDS, Ku-band (17.3 GHz) double electron-electron resonance and double-quantum coherence variants of PDS coupled with distance reconstruction methods recover Cu-Cu distances in good agreement with crystal structures. Moreover, Cu-PDS measurements expose distinct differences between the conformational properties of wild-type SOD1 and a single-residue variant (I149T) that leads to the disease amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). The I149T protein displays a broader Cu-Cu distance distribution within the SOD1 dimer compared to wild-type. In a nitroxide (NO)-labeled sample, distance distributions obtained from Cu-Cu, Cu-NO, and NO-NO separations reveal increased structural heterogeneity within the protein and a tendency for mutant dimers to associate. In contrast, perturbations caused by the ALS mutation are completely masked in the crystal structure of I149T. Thus, PDS readily detects alterations in metalloenzyme solution properties not easily deciphered by other methods and in doing so supports the notion that increased range of motion and associations of SOD1 ALS variants contribute to disease progression.

Preformed Soluble Chemoreceptor Trimers That Mimic Cellular Assembly States and Activate CheA Autophosphorylation

Bacterial chemoreceptors associate with the histidine kinase CheA and coupling protein CheW to form extended membrane arrays that receive and transduce environmental signals. A receptor trimers-of-dimers resides at each vertex of the hexagonal protein lattice. CheA is fully activated and regulated when it is integrated into the receptor assembly. To mimic these states in solution, we have engineered chemoreceptor cytoplasmic kinase-control modules (KCMs) based on the Escherichia coli aspartate receptor Tar that are covalently fused and trimerized by a foldon domain (Tar(FO)). Small-angle X-ray scattering, multi-angle light scattering, and pulsed-dipolar electron spin resonance spectroscopy of spin-labeled proteins indicate that the Tar(FO) modules assemble into homogeneous trimers wherein the protein interaction regions closely associate at the end opposite to the foldon domains. The Tar(FO) variants greatly increase the saturation levels of phosphorylated CheA (CheA-P), indicating that the association with a trimer of receptor dimers changes the fraction of active kinase. However, the rate constants for CheA-P formation with the Tar variants are low compared to those for autophosphorylation by free CheA, and net phosphotransfer from CheA to CheY does not increase commensurately with CheA autophosphorylation. Thus, the Tar variants facilitate slow conversion to an active form of CheA that then undergoes stable autophosphorylation and is capable of subsequent phosphotransfer to CheY. Free CheA is largely incapable of phosphorylation but contains a small active fraction. Addition of Tar(FO) to CheA promotes a planar conformation of the regulatory domains consistent with array models for the assembly state of the ternary complex and different from that observed with a single inhibitory receptor. Introduction of Tar(FO) into E. coli cells activates endogenous CheA to produce increased clockwise flagellar rotation, with the effects increasing in the presence of the chemotaxis methylation system (CheB/CheR). Overall, the Tar(FO) modules demonstrate that trimerized signaling tips self-associate, bind CheA and CheW, and facilitate conversion of CheA to an active conformation.

Tau binds to lipid membrane surfaces via short amphipathic helices located in its microtubule-binding repeats

Tau is a microtubule-associated protein that is genetically linked to dementia and linked to Alzheimer's disease via its presence in intraneuronal neurofibrillary tangle deposits, where it takes the form of aggregated paired helical and straight filaments. Although the precise mechanisms by which tau contributes to neurodegeneration remain unclear, tau aggregation is commonly considered to be a critical component of tau-mediated pathogenicity. Nevertheless, the context in which tau aggregation begins in vivo is unknown. Tau is enriched in membrane-rich neuronal structures such as axons and growth cones, and can interact with membranes both via intermediary proteins and directly via its microtubule-binding domain (MBD). Membranes efficiently facilitate tau aggregation in vitro, and may therefore provide a physiologically relevant context for nucleating tau aggregation in vivo. Furthermore, tau-membrane interactions may potentially play a role in tau's poorly understood normal physiological functions. Despite the potential importance of direct tau-membrane interactions for tau pathology and physiology, the structural mechanisms that underlie such interactions remain to be elucidated. Here, we employ electron spin resonance spectroscopy to investigate the secondary and long-range structural properties of the MBD of three-repeat tau isoforms when bound to lipid vesicles and membrane mimetics. We show that the membrane interactions of the tau MBD are mediated by short amphipathic helices formed within each of the MBD repeats in the membrane-bound state. To our knowledge, this is the first detailed elucidation of helical tau structure in the context of intact lipid bilayers. We further show, for the first time (to our knowledge), that these individual helical regions behave as independent membrane-binding sites linked by flexible connecting regions. These results represent the first (to our knowledge) detailed structural view of membrane-bound tau and provide insights into potential mechanisms for membrane-mediated tau aggregation. Furthermore, the results may have implications for the structural basis of tau-microtubule interactions and microtubule-mediated tau aggregation.

Assembly states of FliM and FliG within the flagellar switch complex

At the base of the bacterial flagella, a cytoplasmic rotor (the C-ring) generates torque and reverses rotation sense in response to stimuli. The bulk of the C-ring forms from many copies of the proteins FliG, FliM, and FliN, which together constitute the switch complex. To help resolve outstanding issues regarding C-ring architecture, we have investigated interactions between FliM and FliG from Thermotoga maritima with X-ray crystallography and pulsed dipolar ESR spectroscopy (PDS). A new crystal structure of an 11-unit FliG:FliM complex produces a large arc with a curvature consistent with the dimensions of the C-ring. Previously determined structures along with this new structure provided a basis to test switch complex assembly models. PDS combined with mutational studies and targeted cross-linking reveal that FliM and FliG interact through their middle domains to form both parallel and antiparallel arrangements in solution. Residue substitutions at predicted interfaces disrupt higher-order complexes that are primarily mediated by contacts between the C-terminal domain of FliG and the middle domain of a neighboring FliG molecule. Spin separations among multi-labeled components fit a self-consistent model that agree well with electron microscopy images of the C-ring. An activated form of the response regulator CheY destabilizes the parallel arrangement of FliM molecules to perturb FliG alignment in a process that may reflect the onset of rotation switching. These data suggest a model of C-ring assembly in which intermolecular contacts among FliG domains provide a template for FliM assembly and cooperative transitions.

Signalling-dependent interactions between the kinase-coupling protein CheW and chemoreceptors in living cells

Chemical signals sensed on the periplasmic side of bacterial cells by transmembrane chemoreceptors are transmitted to the flagellar motors via the histidine kinase CheA, which controls the phosphorylation level of the effector protein CheY. Chemoreceptor arrays comprise remarkably stable supramolecular structures in which thousands of chemoreceptors are networked through interactions between their cytoplasmic tips, CheA, and the small coupling protein CheW. To explore the conformational changes that occur within this protein assembly during signalling, we used in vivo cross-linking methods to detect close interactions between the coupling protein CheW and the serine receptor Tsr in intact Escherichia coli cells. We identified two signal-sensitive contacts between CheW and the cytoplasmic tip of Tsr. Our results suggest that ligand binding triggers changes in the receptor that alter its signalling contacts with CheW (and/or CheA).

The linker between the dimerization and catalytic domains of the CheA histidine kinase propagates changes in structure and dynamics that are important for enzymatic activity

The histidine kinase, CheA, couples environmental stimuli to changes in bacterial swimming behavior, converting a sensory signal to a chemical signal in the cytosol via autophosphorylation. The kinase activity is regulated in the platform of chemotaxis signaling complexes formed by CheW, chemoreceptors, and the regulatory domain of CheA. Our previous computational and mutational studies have revealed that two interdomain linkers play important roles in CheA's enzymatic activity. Of the two linkers, one that connects the dimerization and ATP binding domains is essential for both basal autophosphorylation and activation of the kinase. However, the mechanistic role of this linker remains unclear, given that it is far from the autophosphorylation reaction center (the ATP binding site). Here we investigate how this interdomain linker is coupled to CheA's enzymatic activity. Using modern nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques, we find that by interacting with the catalytic domain, the interdomain linker initiates long-range structural and dynamic changes directed toward the catalytic center of the autophosphorylation reaction. Subsequent biochemical assays define the functional relevance of these NMR-based observations. These findings extend our understanding of the chemotaxis signal transduction pathway.

Conformational coupling between receptor and kinase binding sites through a conserved salt bridge in a signaling complex scaffold protein

Bacterial chemotaxis is one of the best studied signal transduction pathways. CheW is a scaffold protein that mediates the association of the chemoreceptors and the CheA kinase in a ternary signaling complex. The effects of replacing conserved Arg62 of CheW with other residues suggested that the scaffold protein plays a more complex role than simply binding its partner proteins. Although R62A CheW had essentially the same affinity for chemoreceptors and CheA, cells expressing the mutant protein are impaired in chemotaxis. Using a combination of molecular dynamics simulations (MD), NMR spectroscopy, and circular dichroism (CD), we addressed the role of Arg62. Here we show that Arg62 forms a salt bridge with another highly conserved residue, Glu38. Although this interaction is unimportant for overall protein stability, it is essential to maintain the correct alignment of the chemoreceptor and kinase binding sites of CheW. Computational and experimental data suggest that the role of the salt bridge in maintaining the alignment of the two partner binding sites is fundamental to the function of the signaling complex but not to its assembly. We conclude that a key feature of CheW is to maintain the specific geometry between the two interaction sites required for its function as a scaffold.

Signal transduction is a universal biological process and a common target of drug design. The chemotaxis machinery in Escherichia coli is a model signal transduction system, and the CheW protein is one of its core components. CheW is thought to work as a scaffold protein that mediates the formation of the signaling complex with the CheA histidine kinase and the chemoreceptors. A mutation targeting a highly conserved residue, Arg62, impairs chemotaxis while maintaining normal binding affinity for both partners, suggesting that CheW might play a more complex role than previously proposed. Using a series of molecular dynamics simulations, we found that the residue Arg62 can form a stable salt bridge with another highly conserved residue, Glu38. We determined that this bridge does not contribute to the overall stability of the protein. However, the bridge stabilizes the local backbone structure of CheW and stabilizes the relative position of the binding sites for the chemoreceptor and kinase. The geometry of these interactions appears to be vital for the function of the signaling complex. We validated and complemented our computational findings using NMR spectroscopy and circular dichroism analysis.

The 3.2 Å resolution structure of a receptor: CheA:CheW signaling complex defines overlapping binding sites and key residue interactions within bacterial chemosensory arrays

Bacterial chemosensory arrays are composed of extended networks of chemoreceptors (also known as methyl-accepting chemotaxis proteins, MCPs), the histidine kinase CheA, and the adaptor protein CheW. Models of these arrays have been developed from cryoelectron microscopy, crystal structures of binary and ternary complexes, NMR spectroscopy, mutational, data and biochemical studies. A new 3.2 Å resolution crystal structure of a Thermotoga maritima MCP protein interaction region in complex with the CheA kinase-regulatory module (P4-P5) and adaptor protein CheW provides sufficient detail to define residue contacts at the interfaces formed among the three proteins. As in a previous 4.5 Å resolution structure, CheA-P5 and CheW interact through conserved hydrophobic surfaces at the ends of their β-barrels to form pseudo 6-fold symmetric rings in which the two proteins alternate around the circumference. The interface between P5 subdomain 1 and CheW subdomain 2 was anticipated from previous studies, whereas the related interface between CheW subdomain 1 and P5 subdomain 2 has only been observed in these ring assemblies. The receptor forms an unexpected structure in that the helical hairpin tip of each subunit has "unzipped" into a continuous α-helix; four such helices associate into a bundle, and the tetramers bridge adjacent P5-CheW rings in the lattice through interactions with both P5 and CheW. P5 and CheW each bind a receptor helix with a groove of conserved hydrophobic residues between subdomains 1 and 2. P5 binds the receptor helix N-terminal to the tip region (lower site), whereas CheW binds the same helix with inverted polarity near the bundle end (upper site). Sequence comparisons among different evolutionary classes of chemotaxis proteins show that the binding partners undergo correlated changes at key residue positions that involve the lower site. Such evolutionary analyses argue that both CheW and P5 bind to the receptor tip at overlapping positions. Computational genomics further reveal that two distinct CheW proteins in Thermotogae utilize the analogous recognition motifs to couple different receptor classes to the same CheA kinase. Important residues for function previously identified by mutagenesis, chemical modification and biophysical approaches also map to these same interfaces. Thus, although the native CheW-receptor interaction is not observed in the present crystal structure, the bioinformatics and previous data predict key features of this interface. The companion study of the P5-receptor interface in native arrays (accompanying paper Piasta et al. (2013) Biochemistry, DOI: 10.1021/bi400385c) shows that, despite the non-native receptor fold in the present crystal structure, the local helix-in-groove contacts of the crystallographic P5-receptor interaction are present in native arrays and are essential for receptor regulation of kinase activity.

Defining a key receptor-CheA kinase contact and elucidating its function in the membrane-bound bacterial chemosensory array: a disulfide mapping and TAM-IDS Study

The three core components of the ubiquitous bacterial chemosensory array - the transmembrane chemoreceptor, the histidine kinase CheA, and the adaptor protein CheW - assemble to form a membrane-bound, hexagonal lattice in which receptor transmembrane signals regulate kinase activity. Both the regulatory domain of the kinase and the adaptor protein bind to overlapping sites on the cytoplasmic tip of the receptor (termed the protein interaction region). Notably, the kinase regulatory domain and the adaptor protein share the same fold constructed of two SH3-like domains. The present study focuses on the structural interface between the receptor and the kinase regulatory domain. Two models have been proposed for this interface: Model 1 is based on the crystal structure of a homologous Thermotoga complex between a receptor fragment and the CheW adaptor protein. This model has been used in current models of chemosensory array architecture to build the receptor-CheA kinase interface. Model 2 is based on a newly determined crystal structure of a homologous Thermotoga complex between a receptor fragment and the CheA kinase regulatory domain. Both models present unique strengths and weaknesses, and current evidence is unable to resolve which model best describes contacts in the native chemosensory arrays of Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, and other bacteria. Here we employ disulfide mapping and tryptophan and alanine mutation to identify docking sites (TAM-IDS) to test Models 1 and 2 in well-characterized membrane-bound arrays formed from E. coli and S. typhimurium components. The results reveal that the native array interface between the receptor protein interaction region and the kinase regulatory domain is accurately described by Model 2, but not by Model 1. In addition, the results show that the interface possesses both a structural function that contributes to stable CheA kinase binding in the array and a regulatory function central to transmission of the activation signal from receptor to CheA kinase. On-off switching alters the disulfide formation rates of specific Cys pairs at the interface, but not most Cys pairs, indicating that signaling perturbs localized regions of the interface. The findings suggest a simple model for the rearrangement of the interface triggered by the attractant signal and for longer range transmission of the signal in the chemosensory array.

Architecture of the soluble receptor Aer2 indicates an in-line mechanism for PAS and HAMP domain signaling

Bacterial receptors typically contain modular architectures with distinct functional domains that combine to send signals in response to stimuli. Although the properties of individual components have been investigated in many contexts, there is little information about how diverse sets of modules work together in full-length receptors. Here, we investigate the architecture of Aer2, a soluble gas-sensing receptor that has emerged as a model for PAS (Per-Arnt-Sim) and poly-HAMP (histidine kinase-adenylyl cyclase-methyl-accepting chemotaxis protein-phosphatase) domain signaling. The crystal structure of the heme-binding PAS domain in the ferric, ligand-free form, in comparison to the previously determined cyanide-bound state, identifies conformational changes induced by ligand binding that are likely essential for the signaling mechanism. Heme-pocket alternations share some similarities with the heme-based PAS sensors FixL and EcDOS but propagate to the Iβ strand in a manner predicted to alter PAS-PAS associations and the downstream HAMP junction within full-length Aer2. Small-angle X-ray scattering of PAS and poly-HAMP domain fragments of increasing complexity allow unambiguous domain assignments and reveal a linear quaternary structure. The Aer2 PAS dimeric crystal structure fits well within ab initio small-angle X-ray scattering molecular envelopes, and pulsed dipolar ESR measurements of inter-PAS distances confirm the crystallographic PAS arrangement within Aer2. Spectroscopic and pull-down assays fail to detect direct interactions between the PAS and HAMP domains. Overall, the Aer2 signaling mechanism differs from the Escherichia coli Aer paradigm, where side-on PAS-HAMP contacts are key. We propose an in-line model for Aer2 signaling, where ligand binding induces alterations in PAS domain structure and subunit association that is relayed through the poly-HAMP junction to downstream domains.

HAMP domain conformers that propagate opposite signals in bacterial chemoreceptors

HAMP domains are signal relay modules in >26,000 receptors of bacteria, eukaryotes, and archaea that mediate processes involved in chemotaxis, pathogenesis, and biofilm formation. We identify two HAMP conformations distinguished by a four- to two-helix packing transition at the C-termini that send opposing signals in bacterial chemoreceptors. Crystal structures of signal-locked mutants establish the observed structure-to-function relationships. Pulsed dipolar electron spin resonance spectroscopy of spin-labeled soluble receptors active in cells verify that the crystallographically defined HAMP conformers are maintained in the receptors and influence the structure and activity of downstream domains accordingly. Mutation of HR2, a key residue for setting the HAMP conformation and generating an inhibitory signal, shifts HAMP structure and receptor output to an activating state. Another HR2 variant displays an inverted response with respect to ligand and demonstrates the fine energetic balance between "on" and "off" conformers. A DExG motif found in membrane proximal HAMP domains is shown to be critical for responses to extracellular ligand. Our findings directly correlate in vivo signaling with HAMP structure, stability, and dynamics to establish a comprehensive model for HAMP-mediated signal relay that consolidates existing views on how conformational signals propagate in receptors. Moreover, we have developed a rational means to manipulate HAMP structure and function that may prove useful in the engineering of bacterial taxis responses.

Conformational ensemble of the sodium-coupled aspartate transporter

Sodium and aspartate symporter from Pyrococcus horikoshii, Glt_Ph, is a homologue of the mammalian glutamate transporters, homotrimeric integral membrane proteins controlling the neurotransmitter levels in brain synapses. These transporters function by alternating between outward and inward facing states, in which the substrate binding site is oriented toward the extracellular space and the cytoplasm, respectively. Here we employ double electron-electron resonance (DEER) spectroscopy to probe the structure and the state distribution of the subunits in the trimer within distinct hydrophobic environments of detergent micelles and lipid bilayers. Our experiments reveal a conformational ensemble of protomers sampling the outward and inward facing states with nearly equal probabilities, indicative of comparable energies, and independently of each other. On average, the distributions vary only modestly in detergent and in bilayers, but in several mutants unique conformations are stabilized by the latter.

Improved Sensitivity for Long-Distance Measurements in Biomolecules: Five-Pulse Double Electron-Electron Resonance

We describe significantly improved long-distance measurements in biomolecules by use of the new multipulse double electron-electron spin resonance (DEER) illustrated with the example of a five-pulse DEER sequence. In this sequence, an extra pulse at the pump frequency is used compared with standard four-pulse DEER. The position of the extra pulse is fixed relative to the three pulses of the detection sequence. This significantly reduces the effect of nuclear spin-diffusion on the electron-spin phase relaxation, thereby enabling longer dipolar evolution times that are required to measure longer distances. Using spin-labeled T4 lysozyme at a concentration less than 50 μM, as an example, we show that the evolution time increases by a factor of 1.8 in protonated solution and 1.4 in deuterated solution to 8 and 12 μs, respectively, with the potential to increase them further. This enables a significant increase in the measurable distances, improved distance resolution, or both.

Self-association of the histidine kinase CheA as studied by pulsed dipolar ESR spectroscopy

Biologically important protein complexes often involve molecular interactions that are low affinity or transient. We apply pulsed dipolar electron spin resonance spectroscopy and site-directed spin labeling in what to our knowledge is a new approach to study aggregation and to identify regions on protein surfaces that participate in weak, but specific molecular interactions. As a test case, we have probed the self-association of the chemotaxis kinase CheA, which forms signaling clusters with chemoreceptors and the coupling protein CheW at the poles of bacterial cells. By measuring the intermolecular dipolar interactions sensed by spin-labels distributed over the protein surface, we show that the soluble CheA kinase aggregates to a small extent through interactions mediated by its regulatory (P5) domain. Direct dipolar distance measurements confirm that a hydrophobic surface at the periphery of P5 subdomain 2 associates CheA dimers in solution. This result is further supported by differential disulfide cross-linking from engineered cysteine reporter sites. We suggest that the periphery of P5 is an interaction site on CheA for other similar hydrophobic surfaces and plays an important role in structuring the signaling particle.

Locating a lipid at the portal to the lipoxygenase active site

Lipoxygenase enzymes initiate diverse signaling pathways by specifically directing oxygen to different carbons of arachidonate and other polyunsaturated acyl chains, but structural origins of this specificity have remained unclear. We therefore determined the nature of the lipoxygenase interaction with the polar-end of a paramagnetic lipid by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. Distances between selected grid points on soybean seed lipoxygenase-1 (SBL1) and a lysolecithin spin-labeled on choline were measured by pulsed (electron) dipolar spectroscopy. The protein grid was designed by structure-based modeling so that five natural side chains were replaced with spin labels. Pairwise distances in 10 doubly spin-labeled mutants were examined by pulsed dipolar spectroscopy, and a fit to the model was optimized. Finally, experimental distances between the lysolecithin spin and each single spin site on SBL1 were also obtained. With these 15 distances, distance geometry localized the polar-end and the spin of the lysolecithin to the region between the two domains in the SBL1 structure, nearest to E236, K260, Q264, and Q544. Mutation of a nearby residue, E256A, relieved the high pH requirement for enzyme activity of SBL1 and allowed lipid binding at pH 7.2. This general approach could be used to locate other flexible molecules in macromolecular complexes.

Computational and experimental analyses reveal the essential roles of interdomain linkers in the biological function of chemotaxis histidine kinase CheA

A two-component signal transduction pathway underlies the phenomenon of bacterial chemotaxis that allows bacteria to modulate their swimming behavior in response to environmental stimuli. The dimeric five-domain histidine kinase, CheA, plays a central role in the pathway, converting sensory signals to a chemical signal via trans-autophosphorylation between the P1 and P4 domains. This autophosphorylation is regulated via the networked interactions among the P5 domain of CheA, CheW, and chemoreceptors. Despite a wealth of structural information about these components and their interactions, the key question of how the kinase activity of the catalytic P4 domain is regulated by the signal received from the regulatory P5 domain remains poorly understood. We performed replica exchange molecular dynamics simulations on the CheA kinase core and found that while individual domains maintained their structural fold, these domains exhibited a variety of interdomain orientations due to two interdomain linkers. A partially populated conformation that adopts an interdomain arrangement is suitable for building a functional ternary complex. An allosteric network derived from this structural model implies critical roles for two linkers in CheA's activity. The biochemical and biological functions of these linkers were assigned via a series of biochemical and genetic assays that show the P4-P5 linker controls the activation of CheA and the P3-P4 linker controls both the basal autophosphorylation activity and the activation of CheA. These results reveal the functional dependence between the two linkers and the essential role of the linkers in passing signal information from one domain to another.

Pulsed ESR dipolar spectroscopy for distance measurements in immobilized spin labeled proteins in liquid solution

Pulsed electron spin resonance (ESR) dipolar spectroscopy (PDS) in combination with site-directed spin labeling is unique in providing nanometer-range distances and distributions in biological systems. To date, most of the pulsed ESR techniques require frozen solutions at cryogenic temperatures to reduce the rapid electron spin relaxation rate and to prevent averaging of electron-electron dipolar interaction due to the rapid molecular tumbling. To enable measurements in liquid solution, we are exploring a triarylmethyl (TAM)-based spin label with a relatively long relaxation time where the protein is immobilized by attachment to a solid support. In this preliminary study, TAM radicals were attached via disulfide linkages to substituted cysteine residues at positions 65 and 80 or 65 and 76 in T4 lysozyme immobilized on Sepharose. Interspin distances determined using double quantum coherence (DQC) in solution are close to those expected from models, and the narrow distance distribution in each case indicates that the TAM-based spin label is relatively localized.

Crystallization and preliminary X-ray crystallographic analysis of Thermotoga maritima CheA P3-P4-P5 domains in complex with CheW

The CheA-CheW complex plays a key role in bacterial chemotaxis signal transduction by initiating phosphotransfer to response regulators via coupling to the chemoreceptors. CheA (P3-P4-P5 domains) and CheW from Thermotoga maritima were overexpressed in Escherichia coli and crystallized as a complex at 298 K using ammonium dihydrogen phosphate as a precipitant. X-ray diffraction data were collected to ~8 Å resolution at 100 K using synchrotron radiation. The crystal belonged to space group I222 or I2(1)2(1)2(1), with unit-cell parameters a = 184.2, b = 286.4, c = 327.7 Å. The asymmetric unit may contain six to ten CheA-CheW molecules.

CheA-receptor interaction sites in bacterial chemotaxis

In bacterial chemotaxis, transmembrane chemoreceptors, the CheA histidine kinase, and the CheW coupling protein assemble into signaling complexes that allow bacteria to modulate their swimming behavior in response to environmental stimuli. Among the protein-protein interactions in the ternary complex, CheA-CheW and CheW-receptor interactions were studied previously, whereas CheA-receptor interaction has been less investigated. Here, we characterize the CheA-receptor interaction in Thermotoga maritima by NMR spectroscopy and validate the identified receptor binding site of CheA in Escherichia coli chemotaxis. We find that CheA interacts with a chemoreceptor in a manner similar to that of CheW, and the receptor binding site of CheA's regulatory domain is homologous to that of CheW. Collectively, the receptor binding sites in the CheA-CheW complex suggest that conformational changes in CheA are required for assembly of the CheA-CheW-receptor ternary complex and CheA activation.

Molecular architecture of chemoreceptor arrays revealed by cryoelectron tomography of Escherichia coli minicells

The chemoreceptors of Escherichia coli localize to the cell poles and form a highly ordered array in concert with the CheA kinase and the CheW coupling factor. However, a high-resolution structure of the array has been lacking, and the molecular basis of array assembly has thus remained elusive. Here, we use cryoelectron tomography of flagellated E. coli minicells to derive a 3D map of the intact array. Docking of high-resolution structures into the 3D map provides a model of the core signaling complex, in which a CheA/CheW dimer bridges two adjacent receptor trimers via multiple hydrophobic interactions. A further, hitherto unknown, hydrophobic interaction between CheW and the homologous P5 domain of CheA in an adjacent core complex connects the complexes into an extended array. This architecture provides a structural basis for array formation and could explain the high sensitivity and cooperativity of chemotaxis signaling in E. coli.

Effect of freezing conditions on distances and their distributions derived from Double Electron Electron Resonance (DEER): a study of doubly-spin-labeled T4 lysozyme

Pulsed dipolar ESR spectroscopy, DEER and DQC, require frozen samples. An important issue in the biological application of this technique is how the freezing rate and concentration of cryoprotectant could possibly affect the conformation of biomacromolecule and/or spin-label. We studied in detail the effect of these experimental variables on the distance distributions obtained by DEER from a series of doubly spin-labeled T4 lysozyme mutants. We found that the rate of sample freezing affects mainly the ensemble of spin-label rotamers, but the distance maxima remain essentially unchanged. This suggests that proteins frozen in a regular manner in liquid nitrogen faithfully maintain the distance-dependent structural properties in solution. We compared the results from rapidly freeze-quenched (≤100 μs) samples to those from commonly shock-frozen (slow freeze, 1 s or longer) samples. For all the mutants studied we obtained inter-spin distance distributions, which were broader for rapidly frozen samples than for slowly frozen ones. We infer that rapid freezing trapped a larger ensemble of spin label rotamers; whereas, on the time-scale of slower freezing the protein and spin-label achieve a population showing fewer low-energy conformers. We used glycerol as a cryoprotectant in concentrations of 10% and 30% by weight. With 10% glycerol and slow freezing, we observed an increased slope of background signals, which in DEER is related to increased local spin concentration, in this case due to insufficient solvent vitrification, and therefore protein aggregation. This effect was considerably suppressed in slowly frozen samples containing 30% glycerol and rapidly frozen samples containing 10% glycerol. The assignment of bimodal distributions to tether rotamers as opposed to protein conformations is aided by comparing results using MTSL and 4-Bromo MTSL spin-labels. The latter usually produce narrower distance distributions.

Bacterial chemoreceptor arrays are hexagonally packed trimers of receptor dimers networked by rings of kinase and coupling proteins

Chemoreceptor arrays are supramolecular transmembrane machines of unknown structure that allow bacteria to sense their surroundings and respond by chemotaxis. We have combined X-ray crystallography of purified proteins with electron cryotomography of native arrays inside cells to reveal the arrangement of the component transmembrane receptors, histidine kinases (CheA) and CheW coupling proteins. Trimers of receptor dimers lie at the vertices of a hexagonal lattice in a "two-facing-two" configuration surrounding a ring of alternating CheA regulatory domains (P5) and CheW couplers. Whereas the CheA kinase domains (P4) project downward below the ring, the CheA dimerization domains (P3) link neighboring rings to form an extended, stable array. This highly interconnected protein architecture underlies the remarkable sensitivity and cooperative nature of transmembrane signaling in bacterial chemotaxis.

High-resolution NMR field-cycling device for full-range relaxation and structural studies of biopolymers on a shared commercial instrument

Improvements are described in a shuttling field-cycling device (Redfield in Magn Reson Chem 41:753-768, 2003), designed to allow widespread access to this useful technique by configuring it as a removable module to a commercial 500 MHz NMR instrument. The main improvements described here, leading to greater versatility, high reliability and simple construction, include: shuttling provided by a linear motor driven by an integrated-control servomotor; provision of automated bucking magnets to allow fast two-stage cycling to nearly zero field; and overall control by a microprocessor. A brief review of history and publications that have used the system is followed by a discussion of topics related to such a device including discussion of some future applications. A description of new aspects of the shuttling device follows. The minimum round trip time to 1T and above is less than 0.25 s and to 0.002 T is 0.36 s. Commercial probes are used and sensitivity is that of the host spectrometer reduced only by relaxation during travel. A key element is development of a linkage that prevents vibration of the linear motor from reaching the probe.

Transmembrane signal transduction in archaeal phototaxis: the sensory rhodopsin II-transducer complex studied by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy

Archaeal photoreceptors, together with their cognate transducer proteins, mediate phototaxis by regulating cell motility through two-component signal transduction pathways. This sensory pathway is closely related to the bacterial chemotactic system, which has been studied in detail during the past 40 years. Structural and functional studies applying site-directed spin labelling and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy on the sensory rhodopsin II/transducer (NpSRII/NpHtrII) complex of Natronomonas pharaonis have yielded insights into the structure, the mechanisms of signal perception, the signal transduction across the membrane and provided information about the subsequent information transfer within the transducer protein towards the components of the intracellular signalling pathway. Here, we provide an overview about the findings of the last decade, which, combined with the wealth of data from research on the Escherichia coli chemotaxis system, served to understand the basic principles microorganisms use to adapt to their environment. We document the time course of a signal being perceived at the membrane, transferred across the membrane and, for the first time, how this signal modulates the dynamic properties of a HAMP domain, a ubiquitous signal transduction module found in various protein classes.

Transmembrane helix dynamics of bacterial chemoreceptors supports a piston model of signalling

Transmembrane α-helices play a key role in many receptors, transmitting a signal from one side to the other of the lipid bilayer membrane. Bacterial chemoreceptors are one of the best studied such systems, with a wealth of biophysical and mutational data indicating a key role for the TM2 helix in signalling. In particular, aromatic (Trp and Tyr) and basic (Arg) residues help to lock α-helices into a membrane. Mutants in TM2 of E. coli Tar and related chemoreceptors involving these residues implicate changes in helix location and/or orientation in signalling. We have investigated the detailed structural basis of this via high throughput coarse-grained molecular dynamics (CG-MD) of Tar TM2 and its mutants in lipid bilayers. We focus on the position (shift) and orientation (tilt, rotation) of TM2 relative to the bilayer and how these are perturbed in mutants relative to the wildtype. The simulations reveal a clear correlation between small (ca. 1.5 Å) shift in position of TM2 along the bilayer normal and downstream changes in signalling activity. Weaker correlations are seen with helix tilt, and little/none between signalling and helix twist. This analysis of relatively subtle changes was only possible because the high throughput simulation method allowed us to run large (n = 100) ensembles for substantial numbers of different helix sequences, amounting to ca. 2000 simulations in total. Overall, this analysis supports a swinging-piston model of transmembrane signalling by Tar and related chemoreceptors.

My life with nature

After a childhood in Germany and being a youth in Grand Forks, North Dakota, I went to Harvard University, then to graduate school in biochemistry at the University of Wisconsin. Then to Washington University and Stanford University for postdoctoral training in biochemistry and genetics. Then at the University of Wisconsin, as a professor in the Department of Biochemistry and the Department of Genetics, I initiated research on bacterial chemotaxis. Here, I review this research by me and by many, many others up to the present moment. During the past few years, I have been studying chemotaxis and related behavior in animals, namely in Drosophila fruit flies, and some of these results are presented here. My current thinking is described.

Mechanism for the autophosphorylation of CheA histidine kinase: QM/MM calculations

The CheA histidine kinase, a model of TCS (the two-component system), mediates the signal transduction pathway of bacterial chemotaxis via autophosphorylation. Since the TCSs are rarely found in mammalians, they have become attractive targets for the development of new antibiotics. To characterize the autophosphoryl-transfer mechanism of CheA histidine kinase, molecular dynamics simulations combined with quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics calculations were employed on the constructed 3D model of P1-P4-ATP complex. A two-step reaction mechanism was proposed and confirmed by our computations: the autophosphoryl-transfer reaction takes place followed by a rapid and reversible conformational change from ground state to prechemistry state. In addition, a two-dimensional potential energy surface was calculated for autophosphorylation, and the transition state displays an associative character. Moreover, we found Lys48 serves as the catalytic acid to stabilize transition state through a water-mediated proton-transfer pathway, and Glu67 acts as not only a hydrogen bond acceptor but also a structure anchor to modulate the imidazole ring of His45 in the active site. Our findings clearly provide a detailed autophosphoryl-transfer mechanism of CheA histidine kinase and thus are important for discovering new antibiotics.