Evidence of Adaptability in Metal Coordination Geometry and Active-Site Loop Conformation among B1 Metallo-β-lactamases,

Gut microbial metalloproteins and its role in xenobiotics degradation and ROS scavenging

The gut microbial metalloenzymes play an important role in maintaining the balance between gut microbial ecosystem, human physiologically processes and immune system. The metals coordinated into active site contribute in various detoxification and defense strategies to avoid unfavourable environment and ensure bacterial survival in human gut. Metallo-β-lactamase is a potent degrader of antibiotics present in periplasmic space of both commensals and pathogenic bacteria. The resistance to anti-microbial agents developed in this enzyme is one of the global threats for human health. The organophosphorus eliminator, organophosphorus hydrolases have evolved over a course of time to hydrolyze toxic organophosphorus compounds and decrease its effect on human health. Further, the redox stress responders namely superoxide dismutase and catalase are key metalloenzymes in reducing both endogenous and exogenous oxidative stress. They hold a great importance for pathogens as they contribute in pathogenesis in human gut along with reduction of oxidative stress. The in-silico study on these enzymes reveals the importance of point mutation for the evolution of these enzymes in order to enhance their enzyme activity and stability. Various mutation studies were conducted to investigate the catalytic activity of these enzymes. By using the "directed evolution" method, the enzymes involved in detoxification and defense system can be engineered to produce new variants with enhance catalytic features, which may be used to predict the severity due to multi-drug resistance and degradation pattern of organophosphorus compounds in human gut.

Interplay between the β-lactam side chain and an active-site mobile loop of NDM-1 in penicillin hydrolysis as a potential target for mechanism-based inhibitor design

Metallo-β-lactamases (MβLs) stand as significant resistant mechanism against β-lactam antibiotics in Gram-negative bacteria. The worldwide dissemination of New Delhi metallo-β-lactamases (NDMs) intensifies antimicrobial resistance, posing severe threats to human health due to the absence of inhibitors available in clinical therapy. L3, a flexible β-hairpin loop flanking the active site in MβLs, has been proven to wield influence over the reaction process by assuming a crucial role in substrate recognition and intermediate stabilization. In principle, it potentially retards product release from the enzyme, consequently reducing the overall turnover rate although the details regarding this aspect remain inadequately elucidated. In this study, we crystallized NDM-1 in complex with three penicillin substrates, conducted molecular dynamics simulations, and measured the steady-state kinetic parameters. These analyses consistently unveiled substantial disparities in their interactions with loop L3. We further synthesized a penicillin V derivative with increased hydrophobicity in the R1 side chain and co-crystallized it with NDM-1. Remarkably, this compound exhibited much stronger dynamic interplay with L3 during molecular dynamics simulation, showed much lower Km and kcat values, and demonstrated moderate inhibitory capacity to NDM-1 catalyzed meropenem hydrolysis. The data presented here may provide a strategic approach for designing mechanism-based MβL inhibitors focusing on structural elements external to the enzyme's active center.

Identifying Metal Binding Sites in Proteins Using Homologous Structures, the MADE Approach

In order to identify the locations of metal ions in the binding sites of proteins, we have developed a method named the MADE (MAcromolecular DEnsity and Structure Analysis) approach. The MADE approach represents an evolution of our previous toolset, the ProBiS H2O (MD) methodology, for the identification of conserved water molecules. Our method uses experimental structures of proteins homologous to a query, which are subsequently superimposed upon it. Areas with a particular species present in a similar location among many homologous protein structures are identified using a clustering algorithm. Dense clusters likely represent positions containing species important to the query protein structure or function. We analyze well-characterized apo protein structures and show that the MADE approach can identify clusters corresponding to the expected positions of metal ions in their binding sites. The greatest advantage of our method lies in its generality. It can in principle be applied to any species found in protein records; it is not only limited to metal ions. We additionally demonstrate that the MADE approach can be successfully applied to predict the location of cofactors in computer-modeled structures, e.g., via AlphaFold. We also conduct a careful protein superposition method comparison and find our methodology robust and the results largely independent of the selected protein superposition algorithm. We postulate that with increasing structural data availability, additional applications of the MADE approach will be possible such as non-protein systems, water network identification, protein binding site elaboration, and analysis of binding events, all in a dynamic manner. We have implemented the MADE approach as a plugin for the PyMOL molecular visualization tool. The MADE plugin is available free of charge at https://gitlab.com/Jukic/made_software.

The crystal structure of the H116Q mutant of NDM-1: An enzyme devoid of zinc ions

New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase 1 (NDM-1) is an important causative factor of antimicrobial resistance due to its efficient hydrolysis of a broad range of β-lactam compounds. The two zinc ions at the active site play essential roles in the NDM-1 catalytic activities. In a previous work, H116, one of the three ligands at the Zn1 site, was mutated in order to investigate the nature of zinc ion chelation. We report here the crystal structure of the NDM-1 H116Q mutant, that was designed to convert a B1 di-zinc enzyme into a B3 type, which either still binds two zinc ions or binds only one at the Zn2 site. The effect of mutation on the overall structure is minimal. Unexpectedly, no zinc ion was observed in the crystal structure. The Zn2-site ligating residue C221 forms a covalent bond with the nearby K121, a residue important in maintaining the active-site structure. The largest conformational changes were found at main-chain and side-chain atoms at residues 232-236 (loop 10), the proper configuration of which is known to be essential for substrate binding. The catalytic-site mutation caused little local changes, yet the effects were amplified and propagated to the substrate binding residues. There were big changes in the ψ angles of residues G232 and L234, which resulted in the side chain of N233 being displaced away from the substrate-binding site. In summary, we failed in turning a B1 enzyme into a B3 enzyme, yet we produced a zinc-less NDM-1 with residual activities.

NDM-1 Zn1-binding residue His116 plays critical roles in antibiotic hydrolysis

Bacteria expressing NDM-1 have been labeled as superbugs because it confers upon them resistance to a broad range of β-lactam antibiotics. The enzyme has a di‑zinc active centre, with the Zn2 site extensively studied. The roles of active-site Zn1 ligand residues are, however, still not fully understood. We carried out structure-function studies using the mutants, H116A, H116N, and H116Q. Zinc content analysis showed that Zn1 binding was weakened by 40 to 60% in the H116 mutants. The enzymatic-activity studies showed that the lower hydrolysis rates were mainly caused by their weaker substrate binding. The catalytic efficiency (k_cat/K_m) of the mutants followed the order: WT > > H116Q (decreased by 4-20 fold) > H116A (decreased by 20-700 fold) ≥ H116N (decreased by 6-800 fold). The maximum effect was observed on H116N against penicillin G, whereas ampicillin was not hydrolyzed at all. The fold-increase of K_m values, which informs the weakening of substrate binding, were: H116A by 5-45 fold; H116N by 6-100 fold; H116Q by 2-10 fold. Molecular dynamics simulations suggested that the Zn1 site mutations affected the positions of Zn2 and the bridging hydroxide, by 0.8 to 1.2 Å, with the largest changes of ~1.5 Å observed on Zn2 ligand C221. A native hydrogen bond between H118 and D236 was disrupted in the H116N and H116Q mutants, which led to increased flexibility of loop 10. Consequently, residue N233 was no longer maintained at an optimal position for substrate binding. H116 connected loop 7 across Zn1 to loop 10, thereby contributed to the overall integrity. This work revealed that the H116-Zn1 interaction plays a critical role in defining the substrate-binding site. From these results, it can be inferred that inhibition strategies targeting the zinc ions may be a new direction for drug development.

Metallo-β-lactamases and a tug-of-war for the available zinc at the host-pathogen interface

Metallo-β-lactamases (MBLs) are zinc-dependent hydrolases that inactivate virtually all β-lactam antibiotics. The expression of MBLs by Gram-negative bacteria severely limits the therapeutic options to treat infections. MBLs bind the essential metal ions in the bacterial periplasm, and their activity is challenged upon the zinc starvation conditions elicited by the native immune response. Metal depletion compromises both the enzyme activity and stability in the periplasm, impacting on the resistance profile in vivo. Thus, novel inhibitory approaches involve the use of chelating agents or metal-based drugs that displace the native metal ion. However, newer MBL variants incorporate mutations that improve their metal binding abilities or stabilize the metal-depleted form, revealing that metal starvation is a driving force acting on MBL evolution. Future challenges require addressing the gap between in cell and in vitro studies, dissecting the mechanism for MBL metalation and determining the metal content in situ.

Metallo-β-lactamases in the Age of Multidrug Resistance: From Structure and Mechanism to Evolution, Dissemination, and Inhibitor Design

Antimicrobial resistance is one of the major problems in current practical medicine. The spread of genes coding for resistance determinants among bacteria challenges the use of approved antibiotics, narrowing the options for treatment. Resistance to carbapenems, last resort antibiotics, is a major concern. Metallo-β-lactamases (MBLs) hydrolyze carbapenems, penicillins, and cephalosporins, becoming central to this problem. These enzymes diverge with respect to serine-β-lactamases by exhibiting a different fold, active site, and catalytic features. Elucidating their catalytic mechanism has been a big challenge in the field that has limited the development of useful inhibitors. This review covers exhaustively the details of the active-site chemistries, the diversity of MBL alleles, the catalytic mechanism against different substrates, and how this information has helped developing inhibitors. We also discuss here different aspects critical to understand the success of MBLs in conferring resistance: the molecular determinants of their dissemination, their cell physiology, from the biogenesis to the processing involved in the transit to the periplasm, and the uptake of the Zn(II) ions upon metal starvation conditions, such as those encountered during an infection. In this regard, the chemical, biochemical and microbiological aspects provide an integrative view of the current knowledge of MBLs.

Metallo-β-Lactamase Inhibitors Inspired on Snapshots from the Catalytic Mechanism

β-Lactam antibiotics are the most widely prescribed antibacterial drugs due to their low toxicity and broad spectrum. Their action is counteracted by different resistance mechanisms developed by bacteria. Among them, the most common strategy is the expression of β-lactamases, enzymes that hydrolyze the amide bond present in all β-lactam compounds. There are several inhibitors against serine-β-lactamases (SBLs). Metallo-β-lactamases (MBLs) are Zn(II)-dependent enzymes able to hydrolyze most β-lactam antibiotics, and no clinically useful inhibitors against them have yet been approved. Despite their large structural diversity, MBLs have a common catalytic mechanism with similar reaction species. Here, we describe a number of MBL inhibitors that mimic different species formed during the hydrolysis process: substrate, transition state, intermediate, or product. Recent advances in the development of boron-based and thiol-based inhibitors are discussed in the light of the mechanism of MBLs. We also discuss the use of chelators as a possible strategy, since Zn(II) ions are essential for substrate binding and catalysis.

Potential Inhibitors Against NDM-1 Type Metallo-β-Lactamases: An Overview

A new member of the class metallo-β-lactamase (MBL), New Delhi metallo-beta-lactamase 1 (NDM-1) has emerged recently as a leading threat to the treatment of infections that have spread in all major Gram-negative pathogens. The enzyme inactivates antibiotics of the carbapenem family, which are a mainstay for the treatment of antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections. This review provides information about NDM-1 spatial structure, potential features of the active site, and its mechanism of action. It also enlists the inhibitors/compounds/drugs against NDM-1 in various development phases. Understanding their mode of inhibition and the structure-activity relationship would be beneficial for development, synthesis, and even increasing biological efficacy of inhibitors, making them more promising drug candidates.

Flexible loops of New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase modulate its activity towards different substrates

Two accessory loop regions that are present in numerous variants of New Delhi metallo-β-lactamases (NDM) are important for the enzymatic activity. The first one is a flexible loop L3 that is located near the active site and is thought to play an important role in the catalytic process. The second region, Ω loop is located close to a structural element that coordinates two essential zinc ions. Both loops are not involved in any specific interactions with a substrate. Herein, we investigated how the length and hydrophobicity of loop L3 influence the enzymatic activity of NDMs, by analyzing mutants of NDM-1 with various deletions/point mutations within the L3 loop. We also investigated NDM variants with sequence variations/artificial deletions within the Ω loop. For all these variants we determined kinetic parameters for the hydrolysis of ampicillin, imipenem, and a chromogenic cephalosporin (CENTA). None of the mutations in the L3 loop completely abolished the enzymatic activity of NDM-1. Our results suggest that various elements of the loop play different roles in the hydrolysis of different substrates and the flexibility of the loop seems necessary to fulfill the requirements imposed by various substrates. Deletions within the Ω loop usually enhanced the enzymatic activity, particularly for the hydrolysis of ampicillin and imipenem. However, the exact role of the Ω loop in the catalytic reaction remains unclear. In our kinetic tests, the NDM enzymes were inhibited in the β-lactamase reaction by the CENTA substrate. We also present the X-ray crystal structures of the NDM-1, NDM-9 and NDM-12 proteins.

Structure activity relationship studies on rhodanines and derived enethiol inhibitors of metallo-β-lactamases

Metallo-β-lactamases (MBLs) enable bacterial resistance to almost all classes of β-lactam antibiotics. We report studies on enethiol containing MBL inhibitors, which were prepared by rhodanine hydrolysis. The enethiols inhibit MBLs from different subclasses. Crystallographic analyses reveal that the enethiol sulphur displaces the di-Zn(II) ion bridging ‘hydrolytic’ water. In some, but not all, cases biophysical analyses provide evidence that rhodanine/enethiol inhibition involves formation of a ternary MBL enethiol rhodanine complex. The results demonstrate how low molecular weight active site Zn(II) chelating compounds can inhibit a range of clinically relevant MBLs and provide additional evidence for the potential of rhodanines to be hydrolysed to potent inhibitors of MBL protein fold and, maybe, other metallo-enzymes, perhaps contributing to the complex biological effects of rhodanines. The results imply that any medicinal chemistry studies employing rhodanines (and related scaffolds) as inhibitors should as a matter of course include testing of their hydrolysis products.

Exploring the role of L209 residue in the active site of NDM-1 a metallo-β-lactamase

Background

New Delhi Metallo-β-Lactamase (NDM-1) is one of the most recent additions to the β-lactamases family. Since its discovery in 2009, NDM-1 producing Enterobacteriaceae have disseminated globally. With few effective antibiotics against NDM-1 producers, there is an urgent need to design new drug inhibitors through the help of structural and mechanistic information available from mutagenic studies.

Results/Conclusions

In our study we focus the attention on the non-catalytic residue Leucine 209 by changing it into a Phenylalanine. The L209F laboratory variant of NDM-1 displays a drastic reduction of catalytic efficiency (due to low k_cat values) towards penicillins, cephalosporins and carbapenems. Thermofluor-based assay demonstrated that NDM-1 and L209F are stable to the temperature and the zinc content is the same in both enzymes as demonstrated by experiments with PAR in the presence of GdnHCL. Molecular Dynamics (MDs) simulations, carried out on NDM-1 and L209F both complexed and uncomplexed with Benzylpenicillin indicate that the point mutation produces a significant mechanical destabilization of the enzyme and also an increase of water content. These observations clearly show that the single mutation induces drastic changes in the enzyme properties which can be related to the observed different catalytic behavior.

Use of ferrous iron by metallo-β-lactamases

Metallo-β-lactamases (MBLs) catalyse the hydrolysis of almost all β-lactam antibacterials including the latest generation carbapenems and are a growing worldwide clinical problem. It is proposed that MBLs employ one or two zinc ion cofactors in vivo. Isolated MBLs are reported to use transition metal ions other than zinc, including copper, cadmium and manganese, with iron ions being a notable exception. We report kinetic and biophysical studies with the di-iron(II)-substituted metallo-β-lactamase II from Bacillus cereus (di-Fe(II) BcII) and the clinically relevant B1 subclass Verona integron-encoded metallo-β-lactamase 2 (di-Fe(II) VIM-2). The results reveal that MBLs can employ ferrous iron in catalysis, but with altered kinetic and inhibition profiles compared to the zinc enzymes. A crystal structure of di-Fe(II) BcII reveals only small overall changes in the active site compared to the di-Zn(II) enzyme including retention of the di-metal bridging water; however, the positions of the metal ions are altered in the di-Fe(II) compared to the di-Zn(II) structure. Stopped-flow analyses reveal that the mechanism of nitrocefin hydrolysis by both di-Fe(II) BcII and di-Fe(II) VIM-2 is altered compared to the di-Zn(II) enzymes. Notably, given that the MBLs are the subject of current medicinal chemistry efforts, the results raise the possibility the Fe(II)-substituted MBLs may be of clinical relevance under conditions of low zinc availability, and reveal potential variation in inhibitor activity against the differently metallated MBLs.

Cross-class metallo-β-lactamase inhibition by bisthiazolidines reveals multiple binding modes

Metallo-β-lactamases (MBLs) hydrolyze almost all β-lactam antibiotics and are unaffected by clinically available β-lactamase inhibitors (βLIs). Active-site architecture divides MBLs into three classes (B1, B2, and B3), complicating development of βLIs effective against all enzymes. Bisthiazolidines (BTZs) are carboxylate-containing, bicyclic compounds, considered as penicillin analogs with an additional free thiol. Here, we show both l- and d-BTZ enantiomers are micromolar competitive βLIs of all MBL classes in vitro, with Kis of 6-15 µM or 36-84 µM for subclass B1 MBLs (IMP-1 and BcII, respectively), and 10-12 µM for the B3 enzyme L1. Against the B2 MBL Sfh-I, the l-BTZ enantiomers exhibit 100-fold lower Kis (0.26-0.36 µM) than d-BTZs (26-29 µM). Importantly, cell-based time-kill assays show BTZs restore β-lactam susceptibility of Escherichia coli-producing MBLs (IMP-1, Sfh-1, BcII, and GOB-18) and, significantly, an extensively drug-resistant Stenotrophomonas maltophilia clinical isolate expressing L1. BTZs therefore inhibit the full range of MBLs and potentiate β-lactam activity against producer pathogens. X-ray crystal structures reveal insights into diverse BTZ binding modes, varying with orientation of the carboxylate and thiol moieties. BTZs bind the di-zinc centers of B1 (IMP-1; BcII) and B3 (L1) MBLs via the free thiol, but orient differently depending upon stereochemistry. In contrast, the l-BTZ carboxylate dominates interactions with the monozinc B2 MBL Sfh-I, with the thiol uninvolved. d-BTZ complexes most closely resemble β-lactam binding to B1 MBLs, but feature an unprecedented disruption of the D120-zinc interaction. Cross-class MBL inhibition therefore arises from the unexpected versatility of BTZ binding.

The Role of Active Site Flexible Loops in Catalysis and of Zinc in Conformational Stability of Bacillus cereus 569/H/9 β-Lactamase

Metallo-β-lactamases catalyze the hydrolysis of most β-lactam antibiotics and hence represent a major clinical concern. The development of inhibitors for these enzymes is complicated by the diversity and flexibility of their substrate-binding sites, motivating research into their structure and function. In this study, we examined the conformational properties of the Bacillus cereus β-lactamase II in the presence of chemical denaturants using a variety of biochemical and biophysical techniques. The apoenzyme was found to unfold cooperatively, with a Gibbs free energy of stabilization (ΔG(0)) of 32 ± 2 kJ·mol(-1) For holoBcII, a first non-cooperative transition leads to multiple interconverting native-like states, in which both zinc atoms remain bound in an apparently unaltered active site, and the protein displays a well organized compact hydrophobic core with structural changes confined to the enzyme surface, but with no catalytic activity. Two-dimensional NMR data revealed that the loss of activity occurs concomitantly with perturbations in two loops that border the enzyme active site. A second cooperative transition, corresponding to global unfolding, is observed at higher denaturant concentrations, with ΔG(0) value of 65 ± 1.4 kJ·mol(-1) These combined data highlight the importance of the two zinc ions in maintaining structure as well as a relatively well defined conformation for both active site loops to maintain enzymatic activity.

Membrane anchoring stabilizes and favors secretion of New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase

Carbapenems, “last resort” β-lactam antibiotics, are inactivated by zinc-dependent metallo-β-lactamases (MBLs). The host innate immune response withholds nutrient metal ions from microbial pathogens by releasing metal-chelating proteins such as calprotectin. We show that metal sequestration is detrimental for the accumulation of MBLs in the bacterial periplasm, since these enzymes are readily degraded in their non-metallated form. However, the New Delhi Metallo-β-lactamase (NDM-1) is able to persist under conditions of metal depletion. NDM-1 is a lipidated protein anchored to the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. Membrane-anchoring contributes to the unusual stability of NDM-1 and favors secretion of this enzyme in outer membrane vesicles (OMVs). OMVs containing NDM-1 can protect nearby populations of bacteria from otherwise lethal antibiotic levels, and OMVs from clinical pathogens expressing NDM-1 can carry this MBL and the bla_NDM gene. We show that protein export into OMVs can be targeted, providing possibilities of new antibacterial therapeutic strategies.

Evolution of Metallo-β-lactamases: Trends Revealed by Natural Diversity and in vitro Evolution

The production of β-lactamase enzymes is one of the most distributed resistance mechanisms towards β-lactam antibiotics. Metallo-β-lactamases constitute a worrisome group of these kinds of enzymes, since they present a broad spectrum profile, being able to hydrolyze not only penicillins, but also the latest generation of cephalosporins and carbapenems, which constitute at present the last resource antibiotics. The VIM, IMP, and NDM enzymes comprise the main groups of clinically relevant metallo-β-lactamases. Here we present an update of the features of the natural variants that have emerged and of the ones that have been engineered in the laboratory, in an effort to find sequence and structural determinants of substrate preferences. This knowledge is of upmost importance in novel drug design efforts. We also discuss the advances in knowledge achieved by means of in vitro directed evolution experiments, and the potential of this approach to predict natural evolution of metallo-β-lactamases.

Investigating the position of the hairpin loop in New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase, NDM-1, during catalysis and inhibitor binding

In an effort to examine the relative position of a hairpin loop in New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase, NDM-1, during catalysis, rapid freeze quench double electron electron resonance (RFQ-DEER) spectroscopy was used. A doubly-labeled mutant of NDM-1, which had one spin label on the invariant loop at position 69 and another label at position 235, was prepared and characterized. The reaction of the doubly spin labeled mutant with chromacef was freeze quenched at 500μs and 10ms. DEER results showed that the average distance between labels decreased by 4Å in the 500μs quenched sample and by 2Å in the 10ms quenched sample, as compared to the distance in the unreacted enzyme, although the peaks corresponding to distance distributions were very broad. DEER spectra with the doubly spin labeled enzyme with two inhibitors showed that the distance between the loop residue at position 69 and the spin label at position 235 does not change upon inhibitor binding. This study suggests that the hairpin loop in NDM-1 moves over the metal ion during the catalysis and then moves back to its original position after hydrolysis, which is consistent with a previous hypothesis based on NMR solution studies on a related metallo-β-lactamase. This study also demonstrates that this loop motion occurs in the millisecond time domain.

The Evolution of New Catalytic Mechanisms for Xenobiotic Hydrolysis in Bacterial Metalloenzymes

An increasing number of bacterial metalloenzymes have been shown to catalyse the breakdown of xenobiotics in the environment, while others exhibit a variety of promiscuous xenobiotic-degrading activities. Several different evolutionary processes have allowed these enzymes to gain or enhance xenobiotic-degrading activity. In this review, we have surveyed the range of xenobiotic-degrading metalloenzymes, and discuss the molecular and catalytic basis for the development of new activities. We also highlight how our increased understanding of the natural evolution of xenobiotic-degrading metalloenzymes can be been applied to laboratory enzyme design.

Exploring the Role of Residue 228 in Substrate and Inhibitor Recognition by VIM Metallo-β-lactamases

β-Lactamase inhibitors (BLIs) restore the efficacy of otherwise obsolete β-lactams. However, commercially available BLIs are not effective against metallo-β-lactamases (MBLs), which continue to be disseminated globally. One group of the most clinically important MBLs is the VIM family. The discovery of VIM-24, a natural variant of VIM-2, possessing an R228L substitution and a novel phenotype, compelled us to explore the role of this position and its effects on substrate specificity. We employed mutagenesis, biochemical and biophysical assays, and crystallography. VIM-24 (R228L) confers enhanced resistance to cephems and increases the rate of turnover compared to that of VIM-2 (kcat/KM increased by 6- and 10-fold for ceftazidime and cefepime, respectively). Likely the R → L substitution relieves steric clashes and accommodates the C3N-methyl pyrrolidine group of cephems. Four novel bisthiazolidine (BTZ) inhibitors were next synthesized and tested against these MBLs. These inhibitors inactivated VIM-2 and VIM-24 equally well (Ki* values of 40-640 nM) through a two-step process in which an initial enzyme (E)-inhibitor (I) complex (EI) undergoes a conformational transition to a more stable species, E*I. As both VIM-2 and VIM-24 were inhibited in a similar manner, the crystal structure of a VIM-2-BTZ complex was determined at 1.25 Å and revealed interactions of the inhibitor thiol with the VIM Zn center. Most importantly, BTZs also restored the activity of imipenem against Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in whole cell assays producing VIM-24 and VIM-2, respectively. Our results suggest a role for position 228 in defining the substrate specificity of VIM MBLs and show that BTZ inhibitors are not affected by the R228L substitution.

Association of a Zn(2+) containing metallo β-lactamase with the anticancer antibiotic mithramycin

Pathogenic bacteria that are resistant to β-lactam antibiotics mostly utilize serine β-lactamases to degrade the antibiotics. Current studies have shown that different subclasses of metallo β-lactamases (E[MBL]) are involved in the defense mechanism of drug resistant bacteria. Here we report that the Zn(2+) containing subclass B1 E[MBL] from Bacillus cereus binds to a naturally occurring anti-cancer drug mithramycin (MTR). Spectroscopic (CD and fluorescence) and isothermal titration calorimetry studies show that MTR forms a high affinity complex with the Zn(2+) ion containing E[MBL]. Abolished interaction of MTR with apo E[MBL] suggests that the formation of this high affinity complex occurs due to the potential of MTR to bind bivalent metal ions like Zn(2+). Furthermore, CD spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering and differential scanning calorimetry studies indicate that the strong association with sub-micromolar dissociation constant leads to an alteration in the enzyme conformation at both secondary and tertiary structural levels. The enzyme activity decreases as a consequence to this conformational disruption arising from the formation of a ternary complex involving MTR, catalytic Zn(2+) and the enzyme. Our results suggest that the naturally occurring antibiotic MTR, a generic drug, has the potential as an E[MBL] inhibitor.

A variety of roles for versatile zinc in metallo-β-lactamases

β-Lactamases inactivate the important β-lactam antibiotics by catalysing the hydrolysis of the β-lactam ring, thus. One class of these enzymes, the metallo-β-lactamases, bind two zinc ions at the active site and these play important roles in the catalytic mechanism.

Probing the effect of the non-active-site mutation Y229W in New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase-1 by site-directed mutagenesis, kinetic studies, and molecular dynamics simulations

New Delhi metallo-β-lactmase-1 (NDM-1) has attracted extensive attention for its high catalytic activities of hydrolyzing almost all β-lactam antibiotics. NDM-1 shows relatively higher similarity to subclass B1 metallo-β-lactmases (MβLs), but its residue at position 229 is identical to that of B2/B3 MβLs, which is a Tyr instead of a B1-MβL-conserved Trp. To elucidate the possible role of Y229 in the bioactivity of NDM-1, we performed mutagenesis study and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Although residue Y229 is spatially distant from the active site and not contacting directly with the substrate or zinc ions, the Y229W mutant was found to have higher k_cat and K_m values than those of wild-type NDM-1, resulting in 1∼7 fold increases in k_cat/K_m values against tested antibiotics. In addition, our MD simulations illustrated the enhanced flexibility of Loop 2 upon Y229W mutation, which could increase the kinetics of both substrate entrance (kon) and product egress (koff). The enhanced flexibility of Loop 2 might allow the enzyme to adjust the geometry of its active site to accommodate substrates with different structures, broadening its substrate spectrum. This study indicated the possible role of the residue at position 229 in the evolution of NDM-1.

Allosteric inhibition of VIM metallo-β-lactamases by a camelid nanobody

MβL (metallo-β-lactamase) enzymes are usually produced by multi-resistant Gram-negative bacterial strains and have spread worldwide. An approach on the basis of phage display was used to select single-domain antibody fragments (VHHs, also called nanobodies) that would inhibit the clinically relevant VIM (Verona integron-encoded MβL)-4 MβL. Out of more than 50 selected nanobodies, only the NbVIM_38 nanobody inhibited VIM-4. The paratope, inhibition mechanism and epitope of the NbVIM_38 nanobody were then characterized. An alanine scan of the NbVIM_38 paratope showed that its binding was driven by hydrophobic amino acids. The inhibitory concentration was in the micromolar range for all β-lactams tested. In addition, the inhibition was found to follow a mixed hyperbolic profile with a predominantly uncompetitive component. Moreover, substrate inhibition was recorded only after nanobody binding. These kinetic data are indicative of a binding site that is distant from the active site. This finding was confirmed by epitope mapping analysis that was performed using peptides, and which identified two stretches of amino acids in the L6 loop and at the end of the α2 helix. Because this binding site is distant from the active site and alters both the substrate binding and catalytic properties of VIM-4, this nanobody can be considered as an allosteric inhibitor.

Catalytic metal ion rearrangements underline promiscuity and evolvability of a metalloenzyme

Although largely deemed as structurally conserved, catalytic metal ion sites can rearrange, thereby contributing to enzyme evolvability. Here, we show that in paraoxonase-1, a lipo-lactonase, catalytic promiscuity and divergence into an organophosphate hydrolase are correlated with an alternative mode of the catalytic Ca(2+). We describe the crystal structures of active-site mutants bearing mutations at position 115. The histidine at this position acts as a base to activate the lactone-hydrolyzing water molecule. Mutations to Trp or Gln indeed diminish paraoxonase-1's lactonase activity; however, the promiscuous organophosphate hydrolase activity is enhanced. The structures reveal a 1.8-Å upward displacement towards the enzyme's surface of the catalytic Ca(2+) in the His115 mutants and configurational changes in the ligating side chains and water molecules, relative to the wild-type enzyme. Biochemical analysis and molecular dynamics simulations suggest that this alternative, upward metal mode mediates the promiscuous hydrolysis of organophosphates. The upward Ca(2+) mode observed in the His115 mutants also appears to mediate the wild type's paraoxonase activity. However, whereas the upward mode dominates in the Trp115 mutant, it is scarcely populated in wild type. Thus, the plasticity of active-site metal ions may permit alternative, latent, promiscuous activities and also provide the basis for the divergence of new enzymatic functions.

Metallo-β-lactamases withstand low Zn(II) conditions by tuning metal-ligand interactions

A number of multiresistant bacterial pathogens inactivate antibiotics by producing Zn^II-dependent β-lactamases. We show that metal uptake leading to an active dinuclear enzyme in the periplasmic space of Gram-negative bacteria is ensured by a cysteine residue, an unusual metal ligand in oxidizing environments. Kinetic, structural and affinity data show that such Zn^II-Cys interaction is an adaptive trait tuning the metal binding affinity, thus enabling antibiotic resistance at restrictive Zn^II concentrations.

On the active site of mononuclear B1 metallo β-lactamases: a computational study

Metallo-β-lactamases (MβLs) are Zn(II)-based bacterial enzymes that hydrolyze β-lactam antibiotics, hampering their beneficial effects. In the most relevant subclass (B1), X-ray crystallography studies on the enzyme from Bacillus Cereus point to either two zinc ions in two metal sites (the so-called '3H' and 'DCH' sites) or a single Zn(II) ion in the 3H site, where the ion is coordinated by Asp120, Cys221 and His263 residues. However, spectroscopic studies on the B1 enzyme from B. Cereus in the mono-zinc form suggested the presence of the Zn(II) ion also in the DCH site, where it is bound to an aspartate, a cysteine, a histidine and a water molecule. A structural model of this enzyme in its DCH mononuclear form, so far lacking, is therefore required for inhibitor design and mechanistic studies. By using force field based and mixed quantum-classical (QM/MM) molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of the protein in aqueous solution we constructed such structural model. The geometry and the H-bond network at the catalytic site of this model, in the free form and in complex with two common β-lactam drugs, is compared with experimental and theoretical findings of CphA and the recently solved crystal structure of new B2 MβL from Serratia fonticola (Sfh-I). These are MβLs from the B2 subclass, which features an experimentally well established mono-zinc form, in which the Zn(II) is located in the DCH site. From our simulations the εεδ and δεδ protomers emerge as possible DCH mono-zinc reactive species, giving a novel contribution to the discussion on the MβL reactivity and to the drug design process.

X-ray absorption spectroscopy of metal site speciation in the metallo-β-lactamase BcII from Bacillus cereus

Cobalt and zinc binding by the subclass B1 metallo-β-lactamase BcII from Bacillus cereus is examined by X-ray absorption spectroscopy, at various levels of metal loading. The data show that a significant amount of the dinuclear enzyme is formed, even at substoichiometric levels of metal loading, whether the added metal is Zn(II) or Co(II). Increasing metal addition, from 0.5 to 1.0 to 2.0eq/mol of enzyme, are shown to result in a more ordered active site. While Zn(II) appears to show no preference for the Zn(1) (3H) or Zn(2) (DCH) sites, the extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) suggests that Co(II) shows a slight preference for the DCH site at low levels of added Co(II). The results are discussed in the context of similar metal-binding studies of other B1 metallo-β-lactamases.

Structural and kinetic studies on metallo-β-lactamase IMP-1

In an effort to probe for metal binding to metallo-β-lactamase (MβL) IMP-1, the enzyme was overexpressed, purified, and characterized. The resulting enzyme was shown to bind 2 equiv of Zn(II), exhibit significant catalytic activity, and yield EXAFS results similar to crystallographic data previously reported. Rapid kinetic studies showed that IMP-1 does not stabilize a nitrocefin-derived reaction intermediate; rather, the enzyme follows a simple Michaelis mechanism to hydrolyze nitrocefin. Metal-substituted and metal-reconstituted analogues of IMP-1 were prepared by directly adding metal ion stocks to metal-free enzyme, which was generated by dialysis versus EDTA. UV-vis studies on IMP-1 containing 1 equiv of Co(II) showed a strong ligand-to-metal charge transition at 340 nm, and the intensity of this feature increased when the second equivalent of Co(II) was added to the enzyme. EXAFS fits on IMP-1 containing 1 equiv of Co(II) strongly suggest the presence of a metal-metal interaction, and EPR spectra of the IMP-1 containing 1 and 2 equiv of Co(II) are very similar. Taken together, steady-state kinetic and spectroscopic studies suggest that metal binding to metal-free IMP-1 follows a positive-cooperative mode.

Crystal structure of NDM-1 reveals a common β-lactam hydrolysis mechanism

Metallo-β-lactamases (MBLs) hydrolyze most β-lactam antibiotics, and bacteria containing this kind of enzyme pose a serious threat to the public health. The newly identified New Delhi MBL (NDM-1) is a new member of this family that shows tight binding to penicillin and cephalosporins. The rapid dissemination of NDM-1 in clinically relevant bacteria has become a global concern. However, no clinically useful inhibitors against MBLs exist, partly due to the lack of knowledge about the catalysis mechanism of this kind of enzyme. Here we report the crystal structure of this novel enzyme in complex with a hydrolyzed ampicillin at its active site at 1.3-Å resolution. Structural comparison with other MBLs revealed a new hydrolysis mechanism applicable to all three subclasses of MBLs, which might help the design of mechanism based inhibitors.