Effects of osmolytes on the SLN1-YPD1-SSK1 phosphorelay system from Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Antioxidant Systems of Plant Pathogenic Fungi: Functions in Oxidative Stress Response and Their Regulatory Mechanisms

During the infection process, plant pathogenic fungi encounter plant-derived oxidative stress, and an appropriate response to this stress is crucial to their survival and establishment of the disease. Plant pathogenic fungi have evolved several mechanisms to eliminate oxidants from the external environment and maintain cellular redox homeostasis. When oxidative stress is perceived, various signaling transduction pathways are triggered and activate the downstream genes responsible for the oxidative stress response. Despite extensive research on antioxidant systems and their regulatory mechanisms in plant pathogenic fungi, the specific functions of individual antioxidants and their impacts on pathogenicity have not recently been systematically summarized. Therefore, our objective is to consolidate previous research on the antioxidant systems of plant pathogenic fungi. In this review, we explore the plant immune responses during fungal infection, with a focus on the generation and function of reactive oxygen species. Furthermore, we delve into the three antioxidant systems, summarizing their functions and regulatory mechanisms involved in oxidative stress response. This comprehensive review provides an integrated overview of the antioxidant mechanisms within plant pathogenic fungi, revealing how the oxidative stress response contributes to their pathogenicity.

G-protein-coupled Receptors in Fungi

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest family of transmembrane receptors in fungi. These receptors have an important role in the transduction of extracellular signals into intracellular sites in response to diverse stimuli. They enable fungi to coordinate cell function and metabolism, thereby promoting their survival and propagation, and sense certain fundamentally conserved elements, such as nutrients, pheromones, and stress, for adaptation to their niches, environmental stresses, and host environment, causing disease and pathogen virulence. This chapter highlights the role of GPCRs in fungi in coordinating cell function and metabolism. Fungal cells sense the molecular interactions between extracellular signals. Their respective sensory systems are described here in detail.

Characteristic analysis of the fermentation and sporulation properties of the traditional sake yeast strain Hiroshima no.6

General sake yeasts (e.g., Kyokai no.7, K7) show high fermentation ability and low sporulation frequency. Former is related to stress-response defect due to the loss-of-function of MSN4 and RIM15. Later is mainly caused by low IME1 expression, leading to difficulty in breeding and genetic analysis. Sake yeast Hiroshima no.6 (H6), which had been applied for sake fermentation, has sporulation ability. However, its detailed properties have not been unveiled. Here we present that the fermentation ability of H6 is suitable for sake brewing, and the precursor of dimethyl trisulfide in sake from H6 is low. MSN4 but not RIM15 of H6 has the same mutation as K7. Our phylogenetic analysis indicated that H6 is closely related to the K7 group. Unlike K7, H6 showed normal sporulation frequency in a partially RIM15-dependent manner, and IME1 in H6 was expressed. H6 possesses excellent properties as a partner strain for breeding by crossing.

Insights revealed by the co-crystal structure of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae histidine phosphotransfer protein Ypd1 and the receiver domain of its downstream response regulator Ssk1

Two‐component signaling systems are the primary means by which bacteria, archaea, and certain plants and fungi react to their environments. The model yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, uses the Sln1 signaling pathway to respond to hyperosmotic stress. This pathway contains a hybrid histidine kinase (Sln1) that autophosphorylates and transfers a phosphoryl group to its own receiver domain (R1). The phosphoryl group is then transferred to a histidine phosphotransfer protein (Ypd1) that finally passes it to the receiver domain (R2) of a downstream response regulator (Ssk1). Under normal conditions, Ssk1 is constitutively and preferentially phosphorylated in the phosphorelay. Upon detecting hyperosmotic stress, Ssk1 rapidly dephosphorylates and activates the high‐osmolarity glycerol (HOG) pathway, initiating a response. Despite their distinct physiological roles, both Sln1 and Ssk1 bind to Ypd1 at a common docking site. Co‐crystal structures of response regulators in complex with their phosphorelay partners are scarce, leaving many mechanistic and structural details uncharacterized for systems like the Sln1 pathway. In this work, we present the co‐crystal structure of Ypd1 and a near wild‐type variant of the receiver domain of Ssk1 (Ssk1‐R2‐W638A) at a resolution of 2.80 Å. Our structural analyses of Ypd1‐receiver domain complexes, biochemical determination of binding affinities for Ssk1‐R2 variants, in silico free energy estimates, and sequence comparisons reveal distinctive electrostatic properties of the Ypd1/Ssk1‐R2‐W638A complex that may provide insight into the regulation of the Sln1 pathway as a function of dynamic osmolyte concentration.

Sensing and transduction of nutritional and chemical signals in filamentous fungi: Impact on cell development and secondary metabolites biosynthesis

Filamentous fungi respond to hundreds of nutritional, chemical and environmental signals that affect expression of primary metabolism and biosynthesis of secondary metabolites. These signals are sensed at the membrane level by G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs). GPCRs contain usually seven transmembrane domains, an external amino terminal fragment that interacts with the ligand, and an internal carboxy terminal end interacting with the intracellular G protein. There is a great variety of GPCRs in filamentous fungi involved in sensing of sugars, amino acids, cellulose, cell-wall components, sex pheromones, oxylipins, calcium ions and other ligands. Mechanisms of signal transduction at the membrane level by GPCRs are discussed, including the internalization and compartmentalisation of these sensor proteins. We have identified and analysed the GPCRs in the genome of Penicillium chrysogenum and compared them with GPCRs of several other filamentous fungi. We have found 66 GPCRs classified into 14 classes, depending on the ligand recognized by these proteins, including most previously proposed classes of GPCRs. We have found 66 putative GPCRs, representatives of twelve of the fourteen previously proposed classes of GPCRs, depending on the ligand recognized by these proteins. A staggering fortytwo putative members of the new GPCR class XIV, the so-called Pth11 sensors of cellulosic material as reported for Neurospora crassa and some other fungi, were identified. Several GPCRs sensing sex pheromones, known in yeast and in several fungi, were also identified in P. chrysogenum, confirming the recent unravelling of the hidden sexual capacity of this species. Other sensing mechanisms do not involve GPCRs, including the two-component systems (HKRR), the HOG signalling system and the PalH mediated pH transduction sensor. GPCR sensor proteins transmit their signals by interacting with intracellular heterotrimeric G proteins, that are well known in several fungi, including P. chrysogenum. These G proteins are inactive in the GDP containing heterotrimeric state, and become active by nucleotide exchange, allowing the separation of the heterotrimeric protein in active Gα and Gβγ dimer subunits. The conversion of GTP in GDP is mediated by the endogenous GTPase activity of the G proteins. Downstream of the ligand interaction, the activated Gα protein and also the Gβ/Gγ dimer, transduce the signals through at least three different cascades: adenylate cyclase/cAMP, MAPK kinase, and phospholipase C mediated pathways.

Interaction Dynamics Determine Signaling and Output Pathway Responses

The understanding of interaction dynamics in signaling pathways can shed light on pathway architecture and provide insights into targets for intervention. Here, we explored the relevance of kinetic rate constants of a key upstream osmosensor in the yeast high-osmolarity glycerol-mitogen-activated protein kinase (HOG-MAPK) pathway to signaling output responses. We created mutant pairs of the Sln1-Ypd1 complex interface that caused major compensating changes in the association (k_on) and dissociation (k_off) rate constants (kinetic perturbations) but only moderate changes in the overall complex affinity (K_d). Yeast cells carrying a Sln1-Ypd1 mutant pair with moderate increases in k_on and k_off displayed a lower threshold of HOG pathway activation than wild-type cells. Mutants with higher k_on and k_off rates gave rise to higher basal signaling and gene expression but impaired osmoadaptation. Thus, the k_on and k_off rates of the components in the Sln1 osmosensor determine proper signaling dynamics and osmoadaptation.

The yeasts phosphorelay systems: a comparative view

Cells contain signal transduction pathways that mediate communication between the extracellular environment and the cell interior. These pathways control transcriptional programs and posttranscriptional processes that modify cell metabolism in order to maintain homeostasis. One type of these signal transduction systems are the so-called Two Component Systems (TCS), which conduct the transfer of phosphate groups between specific and conserved histidine and aspartate residues present in at least two proteins; the first protein is a sensor kinase which autophosphorylates a histidine residue in response to a stimulus, this phosphate is then transferred to an aspartic residue located in a response regulator protein. There are classical and hybrid TCS, whose difference consists in the number of proteins and functional domains involved in the phosphorelay. The TCS are widespread in bacteria where the sensor and its response regulator are mostly specific for a given stimulus. In eukaryotic organisms such as fungi, slime molds, and plants, TCS are present as hybrid multistep phosphorelays, with a variety of arrangements (Stock et al. in Annu Rev Biochem 69:183-215, 2000; Wuichet et al. in Curr Opin Microbiol 292:1039-1050, 2010). In these multistep phosphorelay systems, several phosphotransfer events take place between different histidine and aspartate residues localized in specific domains present in more than two proteins (Thomason and Kay, in J Cell Sci 113:3141-3150, 2000; Robinson et al. in Nat Struct Biol 7:626-633, 2000). This review presents a brief and succinct description of the Two-component systems of model yeasts, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans and Kluyveromyces lactis. We have focused on the comparison of domain organization and functions of each component present in these phosphorelay systems.

Use of restrained molecular dynamics to predict the conformations of phosphorylated receiver domains in two-component signaling systems

Two‐component signaling (TCS) is the primary means by which bacteria, as well as certain plants and fungi, respond to external stimuli. Signal transduction involves stimulus‐dependent autophosphorylation of a sensor histidine kinase and phosphoryl transfer to the receiver domain of a downstream response regulator. Phosphorylation acts as an allosteric switch, inducing structural and functional changes in the pathway's components. Due to their transient nature, phosphorylated receiver domains are challenging to characterize structurally. In this work, we provide a methodology for simulating receiver domain phosphorylation to predict conformations that are nearly identical to experimental structures. Using restrained molecular dynamics, phosphorylated conformations of receiver domains can be reliably sampled on nanosecond timescales. These simulations also provide data on conformational dynamics that can be used to identify regions of functional significance related to phosphorylation. We first validated this approach on several well‐characterized receiver domains and then used it to compare the upstream and downstream components of the fungal Sln1 phosphorelay. Our results demonstrate that this technique provides structural insight, obtained in the absence of crystallographic or NMR information, regarding phosphorylation‐induced conformational changes in receiver domains that regulate the output of their associated signaling pathway. To our knowledge, this is the first time such a protocol has been described that can be broadly applied to TCS proteins for predictive purposes. Proteins 2016; 85:155–176. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

mrskn7, a putative response regulator gene of Monascus ruber M7, is involved in oxidative stress response, development, and mycotoxin production

Skn7, a response regulator (RR), is associated with oxidative stress adaptation, hypo-osmotic stress response, fungicide sensitivity, cell wall biosynthesis, cell cycle regulation, sexual mating, and sporulation in many filamentous fungi and yeasts. In this study a Skn7-like protein gene mrskn7 (Monascus ruber skn7) was isolated, sequenced, and disrupted to investigate its function in M. ruber Bioinformatics predicted that the deduced protein encoded by mrskn7 contained the conserved DNA-binding and signal-receiver domains similar to the Skn7-like protein structure in other filamentous fungi. The Δmrskn7 strain produced fewer conidia and less mycotoxin, demonstrated increased sensitivity to peroxide but the same level of osmotic resistance to NaCl and glycerol with the wild-type. Additionally, cleistothecia observed at different time point showed a different morphology between the wild-type and the Δmrskn7 strain, suggesting the involvement of mrskn7 in sexual development of M. ruber These results indicated that mrskn7 plays important roles in asexual and sexual development, the production of mycotoxin as well as regulation of oxidative stress signal in M. ruber.

The plant cell wall integrity maintenance mechanism--a case study of a cell wall plasma membrane signaling network

Some of the most important functions of plant cell walls are protection against biotic/abiotic stress and structural support during growth and development. A prerequisite for plant cell walls to perform these functions is the ability to perceive different types of stimuli in both qualitative and quantitative manners and initiate appropriate responses. The responses in turn involve adaptive changes in cellular and cell wall metabolism leading to modifications in the structures originally required for perception. While our knowledge about the underlying plant mechanisms is limited, results from Saccharomyces cerevisiae suggest the cell wall integrity maintenance mechanism represents an excellent example to illustrate how the molecular mechanisms responsible for stimulus perception, signal transduction and integration can function. Here I will review the available knowledge about the yeast cell wall integrity maintenance system for illustration purposes, summarize the limited knowledge available about the corresponding plant mechanism and discuss the relevance of the plant cell wall integrity maintenance mechanism in biotic stress responses.

The plant cell wall integrity maintenance mechanism-concepts for organization and mode of action

One of the main differences between plant and animal cells are the walls surrounding plant cells providing structural support during development and protection like an adaptive armor against biotic and abiotic stress. During recent years it has become widely accepted that plant cells use a dedicated system to monitor and maintain the functional integrity of their walls. Maintenance of integrity is achieved by modifying the cell wall and cellular metabolism in order to permit tightly controlled changes in wall composition and structure. While a substantial amount of evidence supporting the existence of the mechanism has been reported, knowledge regarding its precise mode of action is still limited. The currently available evidence suggests similarities of the plant mechanism with respect to both design principles and molecular components involved to the very well characterized system active in the model organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae. There the system has been implicated in cell morphogenesis as well as response to abiotic stresses such as osmotic challenges. Here the currently available knowledge on the yeast system will be reviewed initially to provide a framework for the subsequent discussion of the plant cell wall integrity maintenance mechanism. The review will then end with a discussion on possible design principles for the cell wall integrity maintenance mechanism and the function of the plant turgor pressure in this context.

Regulatory role of glycerol in Candida albicans biofilm formation

Biofilm formation by Candida albicans on medically implanted devices poses a significant clinical challenge. Here, we compared biofilm-associated gene expression in two clinical C. albicans isolates, SC5314 and WO-1, to identify shared gene regulatory responses that may be functionally relevant. Among the 62 genes most highly expressed in biofilms relative to planktonic (suspension-grown) cells, we were able to recover insertion mutations in 25 genes. Twenty mutants had altered biofilm-related properties, including cell substrate adherence, cell-cell signaling, and azole susceptibility. We focused on one of the most highly upregulated genes in our biofilm proles, RHR2, which specifies the glycerol biosynthetic enzyme glycerol-3-phosphatase. Glycerol is 5-fold-more abundant in biofilm cells than in planktonic cells, and an rhr2Δ/Δ strain accumulates 2-fold-less biofilm glycerol than does the wild type. Under in vitro conditions, the rhr2Δ/Δ mutant has reduced biofilm biomass and reduced adherence to silicone. The rhr2Δ/Δ mutant is also severely defective in biofilm formation in vivo in a rat catheter infection model. Expression profiling indicates that the rhr2Δ/Δ mutant has reduced expression of cell surface adhesin genes ALS1, ALS3, and HWP1, as well as many other biofilm-upregulated genes. Reduced adhesin expression may be the cause of the rhr2Δ/Δ mutant biofilm defect, because overexpression of ALS1, ALS3, or HWP1 restores biofilm formation ability to the mutant in vitro and in vivo. Our findings indicate that internal glycerol has a regulatory role in biofilm gene expression and that adhesin genes are among the main functional Rhr2-regulated genes.

Candida albicans is a major fungal pathogen, and infection can arise from the therapeutically intractable biofilms that it forms on medically implanted devices. It stands to reason that genes whose expression is induced during biofilm growth will function in the process, and our analysis of 25 such genes confirms that expectation. One gene is involved in synthesis of glycerol, a small metabolite that we find is abundant in biofilm cells. The impact of glycerol on biofilm formation is regulatory, not solely metabolic, because it is required for expression of numerous biofilm-associated genes. Restoration of expression of three of these genes that specify cell surface adhesins enables the glycerol-synthetic mutant to create a biofilm. Our findings emphasize the significance of metabolic pathways as therapeutic targets, because their disruption can have both physiological and regulatory consequences.

Receptor-mediated signaling in Aspergillus fumigatus

Aspergillus fumigatus is the most pathogenic species among the Aspergilli, and the major fungal agent of human pulmonary infection. To prosper in diverse ecological niches, Aspergilli have evolved numerous mechanisms for adaptive gene regulation, some of which are also crucial for mammalian infection. Among the molecules which govern such responses, integral membrane receptors are thought to be the most amenable to therapeutic modulation. This is due to the localization of these molecular sensors at the periphery of the fungal cell, and to the prevalence of small molecules and licensed drugs which target receptor-mediated signaling in higher eukaryotic cells. In this review we highlight the progress made in characterizing receptor-mediated environmental adaptation in A. fumigatus and its relevance for pathogenicity in mammals. By presenting a first genomic survey of integral membrane proteins in this organism, we highlight an abundance of putative seven transmembrane domain (7TMD) receptors, the majority of which remain uncharacterized. Given the dependency of A. fumigatus upon stress adaptation for colonization and infection of mammalian hosts, and the merits of targeting receptor-mediated signaling as an antifungal strategy, a closer scrutiny of sensory perception and signal transduction in this organism is warranted.

Response to hyperosmotic stress

An appropriate response and adaptation to hyperosmolarity, i.e., an external osmolarity that is higher than the physiological range, can be a matter of life or death for all cells. It is especially important for free-living organisms such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. When exposed to hyperosmotic stress, the yeast initiates a complex adaptive program that includes temporary arrest of cell-cycle progression, adjustment of transcription and translation patterns, and the synthesis and retention of the compatible osmolyte glycerol. These adaptive responses are mostly governed by the high osmolarity glycerol (HOG) pathway, which is composed of membrane-associated osmosensors, an intracellular signaling pathway whose core is the Hog1 MAP kinase (MAPK) cascade, and cytoplasmic and nuclear effector functions. The entire pathway is conserved in diverse fungal species, while the Hog1 MAPK cascade is conserved even in higher eukaryotes including humans. This conservation is illustrated by the fact that the mammalian stress-responsive p38 MAPK can rescue the osmosensitivity of hog1Δ mutations in response to hyperosmotic challenge. As the HOG pathway is one of the best-understood eukaryotic signal transduction pathways, it is useful not only as a model for analysis of osmostress responses, but also as a model for mathematical analysis of signal transduction pathways. In this review, we have summarized the current understanding of both the upstream signaling mechanism and the downstream adaptive responses to hyperosmotic stress in yeast.

Roles for SKN7 response regulator in stress resistance, conidiation and virulence in the citrus pathogen Alternaria alternata

"Two-component" histidine kinase (HSK1) is the primary regulator of resistance to sugar osmotic stress and sensitivity to dicarboximide or phenylpyrrole fungicides in the citrus fungal pathogen Alternaria alternata. On the other hand, the mitogen-activated protein kinase HOG1 confers resistance solely to salts and oxidative stress. We report here independent and shared functions of the SKN7-mediated signaling pathway with HSK1 and HOG1. SKN7, a putative transcription downstream regulator of HSK1, is primarily required for cellular resistance to oxidative and sugar-induced osmotic stress. SKN7, perhaps acting in parallel with HOG1, is required for resistance to H(2)O(2), tert-butyl hydroperoxide, and cumyl peroxide, but not to the superoxide-generating compounds - menadione, potassium superoxide, and diamide. Because of phenotypic commonalities, SKN7 is likely involved in resistance to sugar-induced osmotic stress via the HSK1 signaling pathway. However, mutants lacking SKN7 displayed wild-type sensitivity to NaCl and KCl salts. SKN7 is constitutively localized in the nucleus regardless of H(2)O(2) treatment. When compared to the wild type, skn7 mutants exhibited lower catalase, peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase activities and induced significantly fewer necrotic lesions on the susceptible citrus cultivar. The skn7 mutant exhibited fungicide resistance at levels between the hsk1 and the hog1 mutant strains. Skn7/hog1 double mutants exhibited fungicide resistance, similar to the strain with a single AaHSK1 gene mutation. Moreover, the A. alternata SKN7 plays a role in conidia formation. Conidia produced by the skn7 mutant are smaller and have fewer transverse septae than those produced by wild type. All altered phenotypes in the mutant were restored by introducing and expressing a wild-type copy of SKN7 under control of the endogenous promoter.

A loss-of-function mutation in the PAS kinase Rim15p is related to defective quiescence entry and high fermentation rates of Saccharomyces cerevisiae sake yeast strains

Sake yeast cells have defective entry into the quiescent state, allowing them to sustain high fermentation rates. To reveal the underlying mechanism, we investigated the PAS kinase Rim15p, which orchestrates initiation of the quiescence program in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We found that Rim15p is truncated at the carboxyl terminus in modern sake yeast strains as a result of a frameshift mutation. Introduction of this mutation or deletion of the full-length RIM15 gene in a laboratory strain led to a defective stress response, decreased synthesis of the storage carbohydrates trehalose and glycogen, and impaired G(1) arrest, which together closely resemble the characteristic phenotypes of sake yeast. Notably, expression of a functional RIM15 gene in a modern sake strain suppressed all of these phenotypes, demonstrating that dysfunction of Rim15p prevents sake yeast cells from entering quiescence. Moreover, loss of Rim15p or its downstream targets Igo1p and Igo2p remarkably improved the fermentation rate in a laboratory strain. This finding verified that Rim15p-mediated entry into quiescence plays pivotal roles in the inhibition of ethanol fermentation. Taken together, our results suggest that the loss-of-function mutation in the RIM15 gene may be the key genetic determinant of the increased ethanol production rates in modern sake yeast strains.

Controlling gene expression in response to stress

Acute stress puts cells at risk, and rapid adaptation is crucial for maximizing cell survival. Cellular adaptation mechanisms include modification of certain aspects of cell physiology, such as the induction of efficient changes in the gene expression programmes by intracellular signalling networks. Recent studies using genome-wide approaches as well as single-cell transcription measurements, in combination with classical genetics, have shown that rapid and specific activation of gene expression can be accomplished by several different strategies. This article discusses how organisms can achieve generic and specific responses to different stresses by regulating gene expression at multiple stages of mRNA biogenesis from chromatin structure to transcription, mRNA stability and translation.

The phosphotransferase VanU represses expression of four qrr genes antagonizing VanO-mediated quorum-sensing regulation in Vibrio anguillarum

Vibrio anguillarum utilizes quorum sensing to regulate stress responses required for survival in the aquatic environment. Like other Vibrio species, V. anguillarum contains the gene qrr1, which encodes the ancestral quorum regulatory RNA Qrr1, and phosphorelay quorum-sensing systems that modulate the expression of small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) that destabilize mRNA encoding the transcriptional regulator VanT. In this study, three additional Qrr sRNAs were identified. All four sRNAs were positively regulated by σ⁵⁴ and the σ⁵⁴-dependent response regulator VanO, and showed a redundant activity. The Qrr sRNAs, together with the RNA chaperone Hfq, destabilized vanT mRNA and modulated expression of VanT-regulated genes. Unexpectedly, expression of all four qrr genes peaked at high cell density, and exogenously added N-acylhomoserine lactone molecules induced expression of the qrr genes at low cell density. The phosphotransferase VanU, which phosphorylates and activates VanO, repressed expression of the Qrr sRNAs and stabilized vanT mRNA. A model is presented proposing that VanU acts as a branch point, aiding cross-regulation between two independent phosphorelay systems that activate or repress expression of the Qrr sRNAs, giving flexibility and precision in modulating VanT expression and inducing a quorum-sensing response to stresses found in a constantly changing aquatic environment.

Histidine kinase two-component response regulator proteins regulate reproductive development, virulence, and stress responses of the fungal cereal pathogens Cochliobolus heterostrophus and Gibberella zeae

Histidine kinase (HK) phosphorelay signaling is a major mechanism by which fungi sense their environment. The maize pathogen Cochliobolus heterostrophus has 21 HK genes, 4 candidate response regulator (RR) genes (SSK1, SKN7, RIM15, REC1), and 1 gene (HPT1) encoding a histidine phosphotransfer domain protein. Because most HKs are expected to signal through RRs, these were chosen for deletion. Except for pigment and slight growth alterations for rim15 mutants, no measurable altered phenotypes were detected in rim15 or rec1 mutants. Ssk1p is required for virulence and affects fertility and proper timing of sexual development of heterothallic C. heterostrophus. Pseudothecia from crosses involving ssk1 mutants ooze masses of single ascospores, and tetrads cannot be found. Wild-type pseudothecia do not ooze. Ssk1p represses asexual spore proliferation during the sexual phase, and lack of it dampens asexual spore proliferation during vegetative growth, compared to that of the wild type. ssk1 mutants are heavily pigmented. Mutants lacking Skn7p do not display any of the above phenotypes; however, both ssk1 and skn7 mutants are hypersensitive to oxidative and osmotic stresses and ssk1 skn7 mutants are more exaggerated in their spore-type balance phenotype and more sensitive to stress than single mutants. ssk1 mutant phenotypes largely overlap hog1 mutant phenotypes, and in both types of mutant, the Hog1 target gene, MST1, is not induced. ssk1 and hog1 mutants were examined in the homothallic cereal pathogen Gibberella zeae, and pathogenic and reproductive phases of development regulated by Ssk1 and Hog1 were found to mirror, but also vary from, those of C. heterostrophus.

Diversity of structure and function of response regulator output domains

Response regulators (RRs) within two-component signal transduction systems control a variety of cellular processes. Most RRs contain DNA-binding output domains and serve as transcriptional regulators. Other RR types contain RNA-binding, ligand-binding, protein-binding or transporter output domains and exert regulation at the transcriptional, post-transcriptional or post-translational levels. In a significant fraction of RRs, output domains are enzymes that themselves participate in signal transduction: methylesterases, adenylate or diguanylate cyclases, c-di-GMP-specific phosphodiesterases, histidine kinases, serine/threonine protein kinases and protein phosphatases. In addition, there remain output domains whose functions are still unknown. Patterns of the distribution of various RR families are generally conserved within key microbial lineages and can be used to trace adaptations of various species to their unique ecological niches.

Kinetic studies of the yeast His-Asp phosphorelay signaling pathway

For both prokaryotic and eukaryotic His-Asp phosphorelay signaling pathways, the rates of protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation determine the stimulus-to-response time frame. Thus, kinetic studies of phosphoryl group transfer between signaling partners are important for gaining a full understanding of how the system is regulated. In many cases, the phosphotransfer reactions are too fast for rates to be determined by manual experimentation. Rapid quench flow techniques thus provide a powerful method for studying rapid reactions that occur in the millisecond time frame. In this chapter, we describe experimental design and procedures for kinetic characterization of the yeast SLN1-YPD1-SSK1 osmoregulatory phosphorelay system using a rapid quench flow kinetic instrument.

Stress signalling to fungal stress-activated protein kinase pathways

The ability of microorganisms to survive and thrive within hostile environments depends on rapid and robust stress responses. Stress-activated protein kinase (SAPK) pathways are important stress-signalling modules found in all eukaryotes, including eukaryotic microorganisms such as fungi. These pathways consist of a SAPK that is activated by phosphorylation through a kinase cascade, and once activated, the SAPK phosphorylates a range of cytoplasmic and nuclear target substrates, which determine the appropriate response. However, despite their conservation in fungi, mechanisms that have evolved to relay stress signals to the SAPK module in different fungi have diverged significantly. Here, we present an overview of the diverse strategies used in the model yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe, and the pathogenic fungus Candida albicans, to sense and transduce stress signals to their respective SAPKs.