1
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Li W, Kaminski Schierle GS, Lei B, Liu Y, Kaminski CF. Fluorescent Nanoparticles for Super-Resolution Imaging. Chem Rev 2022; 122:12495-12543. [PMID: 35759536 PMCID: PMC9373000 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Super-resolution imaging techniques that overcome the diffraction limit of light have gained wide popularity for visualizing cellular structures with nanometric resolution. Following the pace of hardware developments, the availability of new fluorescent probes with superior properties is becoming ever more important. In this context, fluorescent nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted increasing attention as bright and photostable probes that address many shortcomings of traditional fluorescent probes. The use of NPs for super-resolution imaging is a recent development and this provides the focus for the current review. We give an overview of different super-resolution methods and discuss their demands on the properties of fluorescent NPs. We then review in detail the features, strengths, and weaknesses of each NP class to support these applications and provide examples from their utilization in various biological systems. Moreover, we provide an outlook on the future of the field and opportunities in material science for the development of probes for multiplexed subcellular imaging with nanometric resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Li
- Key
Laboratory for Biobased Materials and Energy of Ministry of Education,
College of Materials and Energy, South China
Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, People’s Republic
of China,Department
of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0AS, United Kingdom
| | | | - Bingfu Lei
- Key
Laboratory for Biobased Materials and Energy of Ministry of Education,
College of Materials and Energy, South China
Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, People’s Republic
of China,B. Lei.
| | - Yingliang Liu
- Key
Laboratory for Biobased Materials and Energy of Ministry of Education,
College of Materials and Energy, South China
Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, People’s Republic
of China
| | - Clemens F. Kaminski
- Department
of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0AS, United Kingdom,C. F. Kaminski.
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2
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Mousavi Motlagh SS, Seyedhamzeh M, Ahangari Cohan R, Shafiee Ardestani M, Vaziri B, Azadmanesh K, Saberi S, Masoumi V. Novel G-CSF conjugated anionic globular dendrimer: Preparation and biological activity assessment. Pharmacol Res Perspect 2021; 9:e00826. [PMID: 34269522 PMCID: PMC8283867 DOI: 10.1002/prp2.826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The most crucial role of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) in the body is to increase the strength of immune system. In recent years, research on the use of nanoparticles in pharmaceuticals has been considered, most of which have been for drug-loading purposes. In this study, a novel G-CSF conjugated dendrimer was synthesized and characterized using different techniques. In vitro cytotoxicity was assessed on A549 and L929 cells, while abnormal toxicity was studied in mice. In vitro and in vivo biological activities were assessed in NFS60 cells and rats, respectively. In addition, in vivo distribution, plasma half-life, and histopathological effect were studied in rat. The characterization tests confirmed the successful conjugation. There was no difference between G-CSF cytotoxicity before and after conjugation, and no difference with the control group. No mice showed abnormal toxicity. Although in vitro biological activity revealed both conjugated and free G-CSF promote proliferation cells, biological activity decreased significantly after conjugation about one-third of the unconjugated form. Nonetheless, in vivo biological activity of conjugated G-CSF increased by more than 2.5-fold relative to the unconjugated form, totally. Fortunately, no histopathologic adverse effect was observed in vital rat tissues. Also, in vivo distribution of the conjugate was similar to the native protein with an enhanced terminal half-life. Our data revealed that G-CSF conjugated dendrimer could be considered as a candidate to improve the in vivo biological activity of G-CSF. Moreover, multivalent capability of the dendrimer may be used for other new potentials of G-CSF in future perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Reza Ahangari Cohan
- Department of NanobiotechnologyNew Technologies Research GroupPasteur Institute of IranTehranIran
| | | | - Behrouz Vaziri
- Biotechnology Research CenterPasteur Institute of IranTehranIran
| | | | - Sahar Saberi
- Department of Biotechnology, Food and Drug Control LaboratoriesNational Food and Drug OrganizationTehranIran
| | - Vahideh Masoumi
- Department of Biotechnology, Food and Drug Control LaboratoriesNational Food and Drug OrganizationTehranIran
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3
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Amjad AM. DENDRIMERS IN ANTICANCER TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY: ACCOMPLISHMENTS, CHALLENGES AND DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE. PHARMACY & PHARMACOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.19163/2307-9266-2021-9-1-4-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Dendrimers are nanoparticles with unique features including globular 3D shape and nanometer size. The availability of numerous terminal functional groups and modifiable surface engineering permit modification of dendrimer surface with several therapeutic agents, diagnostic moieties and targeting substances.The aim. To enlighten the readers regarding design, development, limitations, challenges and future directions regarding anticancer bio-dendrimers.Materials and methods. The data base was represented by such systems as Medline, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Scopus, Web of Science Core Collection, PubMed. gov, Google-Academy. A search was carried out for the following keywords and combinations: Polypropylene imine (PPI); Poly-L-lysine (PLL); polyamidoamine (PAMAM); cancer; drug delivery; dendrimers.Results. High encapsulation of drug and effective passive targeting are also among their therapeutic uses. Herein, we have described latest developments in chemotherapeutic delivery of drugs by dendrimers. For the most part, the potential and efficacy of dendrimers are anticipated to have considerable progressive effect on drug targeting and delivery.Conclusion. The newest discoveries have shown that the dendritic nanocarriers have many unique features that endorse more research and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. M. Amjad
- Northern Border University
Rafha, Saudi Arabia, 76322
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4
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Yasami-Khiabani S, Karkhaneh A, Shokrgozar MA, Amanzadeh A, Golkar M. Size effect of human epidermal growth factor-conjugated polystyrene particles on cell proliferation. Biomater Sci 2020; 8:4832-4840. [PMID: 32760979 DOI: 10.1039/d0bm00183j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Conjugation of growth factors to a carrier is a favorable method to improve their efficacy as therapeutic molecules. Here, we report the carrier size effect on bioactivity of human epidermal growth factor (hEGF) conjugated to polystyrene particles. BALB/3T3 cells were treated with hEGF-conjugated particles (hEGF-conjs) sized from 20 to 1000 nm. At hEGF concentrations less than 0.5 ng ml-1, free hEGF was more potent than the hEGF-conjs at inducing cell proliferation. However, cell proliferation was size-dependent at higher concentrations of hEGF i.e. hEGF-conjs sized equal to or less than 200 nm displayed lower cell proliferation, compared to free hEGF, but larger particles showed increased cell proliferation. This is in agreement with previous studies showing accumulation of activated-EGFRs in early endosomes triggers apoptosis of A431 and HeLa cells. The confocal microscopy and co-localization fluorescence staining showed the 500 and 1000 nm hEGF-conjs exclusively remained on the cell surface, probably enabling them to activate EGF receptors for a longer time. Conversely, smaller particles were mostly inside the cells, indicating their rapid endocytosis. Similarly, A431 cells treated with 20 nm hEGF-conj, endocytosed the particles and experienced decreased cell proliferation, while the 500 and 1000 nm hEGF-conjs were not internalized, and induced partial cell proliferation. Moreover, we showed multivalency of hEGF-conjs is not the cause of enhanced cell proliferation by large particles, as the degree of EGFR phosphorylation by free EGF was higher, compared to hEGF-conjs. Our results suggest the potential of micron-sized particles as a carrier for hEGF to enhance cell proliferation, which could be explored as a promising approach for topical application of growth factors for accelerating wound healing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Setayesh Yasami-Khiabani
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology (Tehran Polytechnic), Tehran, Iran.
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5
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Yuan Q, Yeudall WA, Lee E, Yang H. Targeted inactivation of EPS8 using dendrimer-mediated delivery of RNA interference. Int J Pharm 2019; 557:178-181. [PMID: 30597261 PMCID: PMC10629616 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2018.12.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Revised: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 12/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
We developed polyamidoamine dendrimers conjugated with epidermal growth factor (EGF) for use in receptor-mediated delivery of therapeutics to cancer cells. Here, we demonstrate the utility of this approach to inhibit proliferation and migration of head and neck squamous carcinoma cells through targeting of EPS8, a key regulator of squamous carcinoma growth and motility. Use of EGF-dendrimers to deliver siRNA or shRNA against EPS8 resulted in inhibition of cell growth and reduction in cell motility. Moreover, more profound repression of the target protein was obtained with repeat exposure to the targeting reagent, and was consistent with the altered biological properties. Thus, targeting of EPS8 can be achieved with EGF-conjugated dendrimers delivering EPS8-specific RNAi therapeutics, leading to a reduction in the malignant phenotype of cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quan Yuan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284, United States
| | - W Andrew Yeudall
- Department of Oral Biology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, United States; Molecular Oncology and Biomarkers Program, Georgia Cancer Center, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, United States
| | - Eunmee Lee
- Philips Institute for Oral Health Research, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, United States
| | - Hu Yang
- Department of Chemical and Life Science Engineering, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23219, United States; Department of Pharmaceutics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, United States; Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, United States.
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6
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Kim H, Cho MH, Choi HS, Lee BI, Choi Y. Zwitterionic near-infrared fluorophore-conjugated epidermal growth factor for fast, real-time, and target-cell-specific cancer imaging. Am J Cancer Res 2019; 9:1085-1095. [PMID: 30867817 PMCID: PMC6401407 DOI: 10.7150/thno.29719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 12/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is overexpressed in many types of cancers, which is associated with metastatic potential and poor prognosis in cancer patients. Therefore, development of EGFR-targeted sensitive imaging probes has been a challenge in tumor targeting, image-guided cancer surgery, patient-selective anti-EGFR therapy, and efficient targeted therapies. Methods: We synthesized a zwitterionic near-infrared fluorophore (ATTO655)-conjugated epidermal growth factor (EGF) as a novel activatable molecular probe. Fluorescence OFF/ON property and EGFR-targeting specificity of EGF-ATTO655 as well as its utility in real-time near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence imaging of EGFR-positive cancers were evaluated using in vitro and in vivo studies. Results: When conjugated to EGF, the fluorescence of ATTO655 quenched efficiently by photo-induced electron transfer (PET) mechanism between the conjugated dyes and nearby amino acid quenchers (tryptophan/tyrosine residues), which was stably maintained at physiological pH and in the presence of serum for at least 17 h. The fluorescence of EGF-ATTO655 turned on by receptor-mediated endocytosis and subsequent disintegration of EGF in EGFR-positive A431 cancer cells, thereby enabling specific and real-time fluorescence imaging of EGFR-positive cancer cells. Consequently, EGFR-positive tumors could be clearly visualized 3 h post-injection with a significantly high tumor-to-background ratio (TBR = 6.37). Conclusion: This PET mechanism-based OFF/ON type of EGF probe showed great potential for rapid, real-time, and target-cell-specific imaging of EGFR-overexpressing cancers in vitro and in vivo.
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7
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Growth Factor Delivery Systems for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 1078:245-269. [PMID: 30357627 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-13-0950-2_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Growth factors (GFs) are often a key component in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine approaches. In order to fully exploit the therapeutic potential of GFs, GF delivery vehicles have to meet a number of key design criteria such as providing localized delivery and mimicking the dynamic native GF expression levels and patterns. The use of biomaterials as delivery systems is the most successful strategy for controlled delivery and has been translated into different commercially available systems. However, the risk of side effects remains an issue, which is mainly attributed to insufficient control over the release profile. This book chapter reviews the current strategies, chemistries, materials and delivery vehicles employed to overcome the current limitations associated with GF therapies.
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8
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Li Z, Tan S, Li S, Shen Q, Wang K. Cancer drug delivery in the nano era: An overview and perspectives (Review). Oncol Rep 2017; 38:611-624. [PMID: 28627697 PMCID: PMC5562049 DOI: 10.3892/or.2017.5718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2016] [Accepted: 05/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Nanomaterials are increasingly used as drug carriers for cancer therapy. Nanomaterials also appeal to researchers in the areas of cancer diagnosis and biomarker discovery. Several antitumor nanodrugs are currently being tested in preclinical and clinical trials and show promise in therapeutic and other settings. We review the development of nanomaterial drug carriers, including liposomes, polymer nanoparticles, dendritic polymers, and nanomicelles, for the diagnosis and treatment of various cancers. The prospects of nanomaterials as drug carriers for future clinical applications are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Li
- Department of Gastrointestinal and Hernia Surgery, Institute of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan, P.R. China
- Kunming Digestive Disease Treatment Engineering Technology Center, Kunming, Yunnan, P.R. China
| | - Shirui Tan
- College of Agricultural Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan, P.R. China
| | - Shuan Li
- Department of Gastrointestinal and Hernia Surgery, Institute of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan, P.R. China
| | - Qiang Shen
- Department of Clinical Cancer Prevention, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Kunhua Wang
- Department of Gastrointestinal and Hernia Surgery, Institute of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan, P.R. China
- Kunming Digestive Disease Treatment Engineering Technology Center, Kunming, Yunnan, P.R. China
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9
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Kim SE, Lee PW, Pokorski JK. Biologically Triggered Delivery of EGF from Polymer Fiber Patches. ACS Macro Lett 2017; 6:593-597. [PMID: 29250460 PMCID: PMC5726586 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.7b00212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Wound healing is modulated by complex spatial and temporal regulation of growth factors within a wound site. Regenerative medicine seeks to generate materials that can mimic this environment for the healing of chronic or traumatic wounds. Herein, we report a programmed release of epidermal growth factor (EGF) from coextruded polymer fiber patches, which is triggered by the natural biological cascade of wound healing. Genetically engineered EGF containing a matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) cleavage site was covalently conjugated to a nonwoven poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) fiber mat fabricated by multilayered melt coextrusion. The genetically modified EGF showed rapid release in the presence of a biological trigger, MMP-9, while a control protein showed negligible release. The biologically responsive fiber mat dramatically enhanced proliferation and migration of human keratinocytes in the presence of MMP-9. This study describes the release of a critical wound-healing growth factor as triggered by the biology inherent in the healing process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Si-Eun Kim
- Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Case School of Engineering, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, United States
| | - Parker W Lee
- Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Case School of Engineering, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, United States
| | - Jonathan K Pokorski
- Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Case School of Engineering, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, United States
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10
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Regiart M, Fernández-Baldo MA, Villarroel-Rocha J, Messina GA, Bertolino FA, Sapag K, Timperman AT, Raba J. Microfluidic immunosensor based on mesoporous silica platform and CMK-3/poly-acrylamide-co-methacrylate of dihydrolipoic acid modified gold electrode for cancer biomarker detection. Anal Chim Acta 2017; 963:83-92. [PMID: 28335979 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2017.01.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2016] [Revised: 12/29/2016] [Accepted: 01/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
We report a hybrid glass-poly (dimethylsiloxane) microfluidic immunosensor for epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) determination, based on the covalent immobilization of anti-EGFR antibody (anti-EGFR) on amino-functionalized mesoporous silica (AMS) retained in the central channel of a microfluidic device. The synthetized AMS was characterized by N2 adsorption-desorption isotherm, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS) and infrared spectroscopy. The cancer biomarker was quantified in human serum samples by a direct sandwich immunoassay measuring through a horseradish peroxidase-conjugated anti-EGFR. The enzymatic product was detected at -100 mV by amperometry on a sputtering gold electrode, modified with an ordered mesoporous carbon (CMK-3) in a matrix of poly-acrylamide-co-methacrylate of dihydrolipoic acid (poly(AC-co-MDHLA)) through in situ copolymerization. CMK-3/poly(AC-co-MDHLA)/gold was characterized by cyclic voltammetry, EDS and SEM. The measured current was directly proportional to the level of EGFR in human serum samples. The linear range was from 0.01 ng mL-1 to 50 ng mL-1. The detection limit was 3.03 pg mL-1, and the within- and between-assay coefficients of variation were below 5.20%. The microfluidic immunosensor is a very promising device for the diagnosis of several kinds of epithelial origin carcinomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matías Regiart
- INFAP, Laboratorio de Sólidos Porosos, Universidad Nacional de San Luis, CONICET, Ejercito de los Andes 950, D5700BWS, San Luis, Argentina
| | - Martin A Fernández-Baldo
- INQUISAL, Departamento de Química, Universidad Nacional de San Luis, CONICET, Chacabuco 917, D5700BWS, San Luis, Argentina
| | - Jhonny Villarroel-Rocha
- INFAP, Laboratorio de Sólidos Porosos, Universidad Nacional de San Luis, CONICET, Ejercito de los Andes 950, D5700BWS, San Luis, Argentina
| | - Germán A Messina
- INQUISAL, Departamento de Química, Universidad Nacional de San Luis, CONICET, Chacabuco 917, D5700BWS, San Luis, Argentina
| | - Franco A Bertolino
- INQUISAL, Departamento de Química, Universidad Nacional de San Luis, CONICET, Chacabuco 917, D5700BWS, San Luis, Argentina
| | - Karim Sapag
- INFAP, Laboratorio de Sólidos Porosos, Universidad Nacional de San Luis, CONICET, Ejercito de los Andes 950, D5700BWS, San Luis, Argentina
| | - Aaron T Timperman
- Advanced Diagnostics & Therapeutics, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA.
| | - Julio Raba
- INQUISAL, Departamento de Química, Universidad Nacional de San Luis, CONICET, Chacabuco 917, D5700BWS, San Luis, Argentina.
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Pelegri-O’Day EM, Maynard HD. Controlled Radical Polymerization as an Enabling Approach for the Next Generation of Protein-Polymer Conjugates. Acc Chem Res 2016; 49:1777-85. [PMID: 27588677 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.6b00258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Protein-polymer conjugates are unique constructs that combine the chemical properties of a synthetic polymer chain with the biological properties of a biomacromolecule. This often leads to improved stabilities, solubilities, and in vivo half-lives of the resulting conjugates, and expands the range of applications for the proteins. However, early chemical methods for protein-polymer conjugation often required multiple polymer modifications, which were tedious and low yielding. To solve these issues, work in our laboratory has focused on the development of controlled radical polymerization (CRP) techniques to improve synthesis of protein-polymer conjugates. Initial efforts focused on the one-step syntheses of protein-reactive polymers through the use of functionalized initiators and chain transfer agents. A variety of functional groups such as maleimide and pyridyl disulfide could be installed with high end-group retention, which could then react with protein functional groups through mild and biocompatible chemistries. While this grafting to method represented a significant advance in conjugation technique, purification and steric hindrance between large biomacromolecules and polymer chains often led to low conjugation yields. Therefore, a grafting from approach was developed, wherein a polymer chain is grown from an initiating site on a functionalized protein. These conjugates have demonstrated improved homogeneity, characterization, and easier purification, while maintaining protein activity. Much of this early work utilizing CRP techniques focused on polymers made up of biocompatible but nonfunctional monomer units, often containing oligoethylene glycol meth(acrylate) or N-isopropylacrylamide. These branched polymers have significant advantages compared to the historically used linear poly(ethylene glycols) including decreased viscosities and thermally responsive behavior, respectively. Recently, we were motivated to use CRP techniques to develop polymers with rationally designed and functional biological properties for conjugate preparation. Specifically, two families of saccharide-inspired polymers were developed for stabilization and activation of therapeutic biomolecules. A series of polymers with trehalose side-chains and vinyl backbones were prepared and used to stabilize proteins against heat and lyophilization stress as both conjugates and additives. These materials, which combine properties of osmolytes with nonionic surfactants, have significant potential for in vivo therapeutic use. Additionally, polymers that mimic the structure of the naturally occurring polysaccharide heparin were prepared. These polymers contained negatively charged sulfonate groups and imparted stabilization to a heparin-binding growth factor after conjugation. A screen of other sulfonated polymers led to the development of a polymer with improved heparin mimesis, enhancing both stability and activity of the protein to which it was attached. Chemical improvements over the past decade have enabled the preparation of a diverse set of protein-polymer conjugates by controlled polymerization techniques. Now, the field should thoroughly explore and expand both the range of polymer structures and also the applications available to protein-polymer conjugates. As we move beyond medicine toward broader applications, increased collaboration and interdisciplinary work will result in the further development of this exciting field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma M. Pelegri-O’Day
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry and California Nanosystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Drive East, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Heather D. Maynard
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry and California Nanosystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Drive East, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
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12
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Decker CG, Wang Y, Paluck SJ, Shen L, Loo JA, Levine AJ, Miller LS, Maynard HD. Fibroblast growth factor 2 dimer with superagonist in vitro activity improves granulation tissue formation during wound healing. Biomaterials 2016; 81:157-168. [PMID: 26731578 PMCID: PMC4715972 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2015.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2015] [Revised: 12/04/2015] [Accepted: 12/11/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Site-specific chemical dimerization of fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) with the optimal linker length resulted in a FGF2 homodimer with improved granulation tissue formation and blood vessel formation at exceptionally low concentrations. Homodimers of FGF2 were synthesized through site-specific linkages to both ends of different molecular weight poly(ethylene glycols) (PEGs). The optimal linker length was determined by screening dimer-induced metabolic activity of human dermal fibroblasts and found to be that closest to the inter-cysteine distance, 70 Å, corresponding to 2 kDa PEG. A straightforward analysis of the kinetics of second ligand binding as a function of tether length showed that, as the polymerization index (the number of monomer repeat units in the polymer, N) of the tether decreases, the mean time for second ligand capture decreases as ∼N(3/2), leading to an enhancement of the number of doubly bound ligands in steady-state for a given (tethered) ligand concentration. FGF2-PEG2k-FGF2 induced greater fibroblast metabolic activity than FGF2 alone, all other dimers, and all monoconjugates, at each concentration tested, with the greatest difference observed at low (0.1 ng/mL) concentration. FGF2-PEG2k-FGF2 further exhibited superior activity compared to FGF2 for both metabolic activity and migration in human umbilical vein endothelial cells, as well as improved angiogenesis in a coculture model in vitro. Efficacy in an in vivo wound healing model was assessed in diabetic mice. FGF2-PEG2k-FGF2 increased granulation tissue and blood vessel density in the wound bed compared to FGF2. The results suggest that this rationally designed construct may be useful for improving the fibroblast matrix formation and angiogenesis in chronic wound healing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin G Decker
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1569, United States
| | - Yu Wang
- Department of Dermatology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 1550 Orleans St., Baltimore, MD 21231, United States
| | - Samantha J Paluck
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1569, United States
| | - Lu Shen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1569, United States
| | - Joseph A Loo
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1569, United States; Department of Biological Chemistry, David Geffen School of Medicine, and UCLA/DOE Institute of Genomics and Proteomics, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States
| | - Alex J Levine
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1569, United States; Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1569, United States; Department of Biomathematics, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1569, United States
| | - Lloyd S Miller
- Department of Dermatology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 1550 Orleans St., Baltimore, MD 21231, United States
| | - Heather D Maynard
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1569, United States.
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13
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Lorenzo MM, Decker CG, Kahveci MU, Paluck SJ, Maynard HD. Homodimeric Protein-Polymer Conjugates via the Tetrazine- trans-Cyclooctene Ligation. Macromolecules 2015; 49:30-37. [PMID: 26949271 DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.5b02323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Tetrazine end-functionalized telechelic polymers were synthesized by controlled radical polymerization (CRP) and employed to generate T4 Lysozyme homodimers. Mutant T4 Lysozyme (V131C), containing a single surface-exposed cysteine, was modified with a protein-reactive trans-cyclooctene (T4L-TCO). Reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization yielded poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (pNIPAAm) with a number average molecular weight (Mn by 1H-NMR) of 2.0 kDa and a dispersity (Đ by GPC) of 1.05. pNIPAAm was then modified at both ends by post-polymerization with 6-methyl tetrazine. For comparison, 2.0 kDa bis-tetrazine poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) and 2.0 kDa bis-maleimide pNIPAAm were synthesized. Ligation of T4L-TCO to bis-tetrazine pNIPAAm or bis-tetrazine PEG resulted in protein homodimer in 38% yield and 37% yield, respectively, after only 1 hour, whereas bis-maleimide pNIPAAm resulted in only 5% yield of dimer after 24 h. This work illustrates the advantage of employing tetrazine ligation over maleimide thiol-ene chemistry for the synthesis of protein homodimer conjugates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maltish M Lorenzo
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, California 90095-1569, United States
| | - Caitlin G Decker
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, California 90095-1569, United States
| | - Muhammet U Kahveci
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, California 90095-1569, United States
| | - Samantha J Paluck
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, California 90095-1569, United States
| | - Heather D Maynard
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, California 90095-1569, United States
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14
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Schrage R, De Min A, Hochheiser K, Kostenis E, Mohr K. Superagonism at G protein-coupled receptors and beyond. Br J Pharmacol 2015; 173:3018-27. [PMID: 26276510 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2015] [Revised: 07/01/2015] [Accepted: 08/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Ligands targeting GPCRs can be categorized according to their intrinsic efficacy to trigger a specific, receptor-mediated response. A ligand endowed with the same level of efficacy as the endogenous agonist can be classified as a full agonist, whereas a compound that displays greater efficacy, that is, higher receptor signalling output than the endogenous agonist, can be called a superagonist. Subsequent to GPCR activation, an intracellular signalling cascade is set in motion, which may generate substantial amplification of the signal. This may obscure superagonism in pharmacological assays and, therefore, the definition of superagonism necessitates a combination of operational approaches, reduction of spare receptors or estimation of receptor activation close to the receptor level to quantify relative agonist efficacies in a particular system. The first part of this review will compare GPCR superagonism with superagonism in the field of immunology, where this term is well established. In the second part, known GPCR superagonists will be reviewed. Then, the experimental and analytical challenges in the deconvolution of GPCR superagonism will be addressed. Finally, the potential benefit of superagonism is discussed. The molecular mechanisms behind GPCR superagonism are not completely understood. However, crystallography shows that agonist binding alone is not sufficient for a fully active receptor state and that binding of the G protein is at least equally important. Accordingly, the emerging number of reported superagonists implies that ligand-induced receptor conformations more active than the ones stabilized by the endogenous agonist are indeed feasible. Superagonists may have therapeutic potential when receptor function is impaired or to induce negative feedback mechanisms. Linked Articles This article is part of a themed section on Molecular Pharmacology of G Protein-Coupled Receptors. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v173.20/issuetoc.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Schrage
- Pharmacology & Toxicology Section, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Bonn, 53121, Bonn, Germany.
| | - A De Min
- Pharmacology & Toxicology Section, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Bonn, 53121, Bonn, Germany
| | - K Hochheiser
- Peter Doherty Institute, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3100, Australia
| | - E Kostenis
- Molecular-, Cellular-, and Pharmacobiology Section, Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology, University of Bonn, 53115, Bonn, Germany
| | - K Mohr
- Pharmacology & Toxicology Section, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Bonn, 53121, Bonn, Germany
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15
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Xu H, Ma H, Yang P, Zhang X, Wu X, Yin W, Wang H, Xu D. Targeted polymer-drug conjugates: Current progress and future perspective. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2015; 136:729-34. [PMID: 26513756 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2015.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2015] [Revised: 09/30/2015] [Accepted: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The combination of polymer technology and targeted drug delivery may pave the way for more effective yet safer therapeutic options for cancer therapy. Polymer-drug conjugates belonging to polymer therapeutics represent an emerging approach for drug delivery. The development of smart targeted polymer-drug conjugates that can specifically deliver drugs at a sustained rate to tumor cells may substantially improve the therapeutic index of anticancer agents. In this update, we provide an overview of the most important targeting molecules, and systemically summarize the recent advances in the development of tumor-targeted polymer-drug conjugates. Additionally, several promising approaches for the future will also be presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongyan Xu
- Department of pharmacy, People's Hospital of Linzi District, Linzi, Shandong Province 255400, China
| | - Haifeng Ma
- Department of pharmacy, People's Hospital of Linzi District, Linzi, Shandong Province 255400, China.
| | - Peimin Yang
- Department of pharmacy, People's Hospital of Linzi District, Linzi, Shandong Province 255400, China
| | - Xia Zhang
- Department of pharmacy, People's Hospital of Linzi District, Linzi, Shandong Province 255400, China
| | - Xiangxia Wu
- Department of pharmacy, People's Hospital of Linzi District, Linzi, Shandong Province 255400, China
| | - Weidong Yin
- Department of pharmacy, People's Hospital of Linzi District, Linzi, Shandong Province 255400, China
| | - Hui Wang
- Department of pharmacy, People's Hospital of Linzi District, Linzi, Shandong Province 255400, China
| | - Dongmei Xu
- Department of pharmacy, People's Hospital of Linzi District, Linzi, Shandong Province 255400, China
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16
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Singh J, Garg T, Rath G, Goyal AK. Advances in nanotechnology-based carrier systems for targeted delivery of bioactive drug molecules with special emphasis on immunotherapy in drug resistant tuberculosis – a critical review. Drug Deliv 2015; 23:1676-98. [DOI: 10.3109/10717544.2015.1074765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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17
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Lin Y, Liu K, Wang C, Li L, Liu Y. Electrochemical Immunosensor for Detection of Epidermal Growth Factor Reaching Lower Detection Limit: Toward Oxidized Glutathione as a More Efficient Blocking Reagent for the Antibody Functionalized Silver Nanoparticles and Antigen Interaction. Anal Chem 2015. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b01834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuqing Lin
- Department
of Chemistry, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Kangyu Liu
- Department
of Chemistry, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Chao Wang
- Department
of Chemistry, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Linbo Li
- Department
of Chemistry, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China
- College
of Resources Environment and Tourism, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Yuxin Liu
- Department
of Chemistry, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China
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18
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Ilkhani H, Sarparast M, Noori A, Zahra Bathaie S, Mousavi MF. Electrochemical aptamer/antibody based sandwich immunosensor for the detection of EGFR, a cancer biomarker, using gold nanoparticles as a signaling probe. Biosens Bioelectron 2015; 74:491-7. [PMID: 26176209 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2015.06.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2015] [Revised: 06/24/2015] [Accepted: 06/25/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Detection of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) in biological fluids is of paramount importance, since it has significant application in cancer diagnosis, drug development, and therapy monitoring. EGFR is a cancer biomarker, and its overexpression is associated with the development of some types of cancer. Herein, we report on the development of a sensitive and selective electrochemical aptamer/antibody (Apt/Ab) sandwich immunosensor for detection of EGFR. In this study, a biotinylated anti-human EGFR Apt was immobilized on streptavidin-coated magnetic beads (MB) and served as a capture probe. A polyclonal anti-human EGFR Ab was conjugated to citrate-coated gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and used as a signaling probe. In the presence of EGFR, an Apt-EGFR-Ab sandwich was formed on the MB surface. The extent of the complexation was evaluated by differential pulse voltammetry of AuNPs after their dissolution in HCl. Under optimal conditions, the dynamic concentration range of the immunosensor for EGFR spanned from 1 to 40 ng/mL, with a low detection limit of 50 pg/mL, and RSD percent of less than 4.2%. The proposed approach takes advantage of sandwich assay for high specificity, MBs for fast separation, and electrochemical method for cost-effective and sensitive detection. In this proof-of-principle study, we demonstrate the potential clinical efficacy of the immunosensor for monitoring of chemotherapy effectiveness in breast cancer samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hoda Ilkhani
- Department of Chemistry, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran 14115-175, Iran
| | - Morteza Sarparast
- Department of Chemistry, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran 14115-175, Iran
| | - Abolhassan Noori
- Department of Chemistry, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran 14115-175, Iran
| | - S Zahra Bathaie
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mir F Mousavi
- Department of Chemistry, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran 14115-175, Iran.
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19
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20
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Wong PT, Choi SK. Mechanisms of Drug Release in Nanotherapeutic Delivery Systems. Chem Rev 2015; 115:3388-432. [DOI: 10.1021/cr5004634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 349] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pamela T. Wong
- Michigan
Nanotechnology Institute
for Medicine and Biological Sciences, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Seok Ki Choi
- Michigan
Nanotechnology Institute
for Medicine and Biological Sciences, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
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21
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Leistra AN, Han JH, Tang S, Orr BG, Banaszak Holl MM, Choi SK, Sinniah K. Force spectroscopy of multivalent binding of riboflavin-conjugated dendrimers to riboflavin binding protein. J Phys Chem B 2015; 119:5785-92. [PMID: 25872803 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.5b01028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Putative riboflavin receptors are considered as biomarkers due to their overexpression in breast and prostate cancers. Hence, these receptors can be potentially exploited for use in targeted drug delivery systems where dendrimer nanoparticles with multivalent ligand attachments can lead to greater specificity in cellular interactions. In this study, the single molecule force spectroscopy technique was used to assess the physical strength of multivalent interactions by employing a riboflavin (RF)-conjugated generation 5 PAMAM dendrimer G5(RF)n nanoparticle. By varying the average RF ligand valency (n = 0, 3, 5), the rupture force was measured between G5(RF)n and the riboflavin binding protein (RFBP). The rupture force increased when the valency of RF increased. We observed at the higher valency (n = 5) three binding events that increased in rupture force with increasing loading rate. Assuming a single energy barrier, the Bell-Evans model was used to determine the kinetic off-rate and barrier width for all binding interactions. The analysis of our results appears to indicate that multivalent interactions are resulting in changes to rupture force and kinetic off-rates.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Shengzhuang Tang
- ‡Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Bradford G Orr
- ‡Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,⊥Department of Physics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Mark M Banaszak Holl
- ‡Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,§Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,∥Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Seok Ki Choi
- ‡Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,#Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
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22
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Ma P, Zhang X, Ni L, Li J, Zhang F, Wang Z, Lian S, Sun K. Targeted delivery of polyamidoamine-paclitaxel conjugate functionalized with anti-human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 trastuzumab. Int J Nanomedicine 2015; 10:2173-90. [PMID: 25834432 PMCID: PMC4370923 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s77152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Antibody-dendrimer conjugates have the potential to improve the targeting and release of chemotherapeutic drugs at the tumor site while reducing adverse side effects caused by drug accumulation in healthy tissues. In this study, trastuzumab (TMAB), which binds to human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), was used as a targeting agent in a TMAB-polyamidoamine (PAMAM) conjugate carrying paclitaxel (PTX) specifically to cells overexpressing HER2. Methods TMAB was covalently linked to a PAMAM dendrimer via bifunctional polyethylene glycol (PEG). PTX was conjugated to PAMAM using succinic anhydride as a cross-linker, yielding TMAB-PEG-PAMAM-PTX. Dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy were used to characterize the conjugates. The cellular uptake and in vivo biodistribution were studied by fluorescence microscopy, flow cytometry, and Carestream In Vivo FX, respectively. Results Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy demonstrated that PEG, PTX, fluorescein isothiocyanate, and cyanine7 were conjugated to PAMAM. Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy and sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis demonstrated that TMAB was conjugated to PEG-PAMAM. Dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy measurements revealed that the different conjugates ranged in size between 10 and 35 nm and had a spherical shape. In vitro cellular uptake demonstrated that the TMAB-conjugated PAMAM was taken up by HER2-overexpressing BT474 cells more efficiently than MCF-7 cells that expressed lower levels of HER2. Co-localization experiments indicated that TMAB-conjugated PAMAM was located in the cytoplasm. The in vitro cytotoxicity of TMAB-conjugated PAMAM was lower than free PTX due to the slow release of PTX from the conjugate. In vivo targeting further demonstrated that TMAB-conjugated PAMAM accumulated in the BT474 tumor model more efficiently than non-conjugated PAMAM. Conclusion TMAB can serve as an effective targeting agent, and the TMAB-conjugated PAMAM can be exploited as a potential targeted chemotherapeutic drug delivery system for tumors that overexpress HER2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengkai Ma
- School of Pharmacy, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuemei Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Ling Ni
- State Key Laboratory of Long-acting and Targeting Drug Delivery System, Yantai, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinming Li
- State Key Laboratory of Long-acting and Targeting Drug Delivery System, Yantai, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Fengpu Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Zheng Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Shengnan Lian
- School of Pharmacy, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Kaoxiang Sun
- School of Pharmacy, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong Province, People's Republic of China
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23
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Wong PT, Choi SK. Mechanisms and implications of dual-acting methotrexate in folate-targeted nanotherapeutic delivery. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16:1772-90. [PMID: 25590303 PMCID: PMC4307333 DOI: 10.3390/ijms16011772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2014] [Accepted: 01/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The rational design of a nanoplatform in drug delivery plays a crucial role in determining its targeting specificity and efficacy in vivo. A conventional approach relies on the surface conjugation of a nanometer-sized particle with two functionally distinct types of molecules, one as a targeting ligand, and the other as a therapeutic agent to be delivered to the diseased cell. However, an alternative simplified approach can be used, in which a single type of molecule displaying dual function as both a targeting ligand and therapeutic agent is conjugated to the nanoparticle. In this review, we evaluate the validity of this new strategy by using methotrexate, which displays multifunctional mechanisms of action. Methotrexate binds to the folate receptor, a surface biomarker frequently overexpressed in tumor cells, and also inhibits dihydrofolate reductase, an enzyme critical for cell survival and division. Thus we describe a series of fifth generation poly(amido amine) dendrimers conjugated with methotrexate, and discuss several lines of evidence supporting the efficacy of this new platform strategy based on surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy, enzyme activity assays, and cell-based studies with folate receptor (+) KB cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela T Wong
- Department of Internal Medicine, Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
| | - Seok Ki Choi
- Department of Internal Medicine, Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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24
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Makhdom AM, Nayef L, Tabrizian M, Hamdy RC. The potential roles of nanobiomaterials in distraction osteogenesis. NANOMEDICINE-NANOTECHNOLOGY BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2015; 11:1-18. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2014.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2014] [Revised: 04/25/2014] [Accepted: 05/16/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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25
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Khoee S, Kardani M. Preparation of PCL/PEG superporous hydrogel containing drug-loaded nanoparticles: The effect of hydrophobic–hydrophilic interface on the physical properties. Eur Polym J 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2014.06.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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26
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Witte AB, Leistra AN, Wong PT, Bharathi S, Refior K, Smith P, Kaso O, Sinniah K, Choi SK. Atomic force microscopy probing of receptor-nanoparticle interactions for riboflavin receptor targeted gold-dendrimer nanocomposites. J Phys Chem B 2014; 118:2872-82. [PMID: 24571134 PMCID: PMC3983334 DOI: 10.1021/jp412053w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Riboflavin receptors are overexpressed
in malignant cells from
certain human breast and prostate cancers, and they constitute a group
of potential surface markers important for cancer targeted delivery
of therapeutic agents and imaging molecules. Here we report on the
fabrication and atomic force microscopy (AFM) characterization of
a core–shell nanocomposite consisting of a gold nanoparticle
(AuNP) coated with riboflavin receptor-targeting poly(amido amine)
dendrimer. We designed this nanocomposite for potential applications
such as a cancer targeted imaging material based on its surface plasmon
resonance properties conferred by AuNP. We employed AFM as a technique
for probing the binding interaction between the nanocomposite and
riboflavin binding protein (RfBP) in solution. AFM enabled precise
measurement of the AuNP height distribution before (13.5 nm) and after
chemisorption of riboflavin-conjugated dendrimer (AuNP–dendrimer;
20.5 nm). Binding of RfBP to the AuNP–dendrimer caused a height
increase to 26.7 nm, which decreased to 22.8 nm when coincubated with
riboflavin as a competitive ligand, supporting interaction of AuNP–dendrimer
and its target protein. In summary, physical determination of size
distribution by AFM imaging can serve as a quantitative approach to
monitor and characterize the nanoscale interaction between a dendrimer-covered
AuNP and target protein molecules in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda B Witte
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Calvin College , 3201 Burton Street SE, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49546, United States
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27
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Huang B, Otis J, Joice M, Kotlyar A, Thomas TP. PSMA-targeted stably linked "dendrimer-glutamate urea-methotrexate" as a prostate cancer therapeutic. Biomacromolecules 2014; 15:915-23. [PMID: 24392665 DOI: 10.1021/bm401777w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
One of the important criteria for achieving efficient nanoparticle-based targeted drug delivery is that the drug is not prematurely released at off-target sites. Here we report the preclinical evaluation of a serum-stable dendrimer-based drug conjugate capable of actively targeting into prostate cancer (PC) cells, delivered through the prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA). Multiple molecules of PSMA-binding small molecule glutamate urea (GLA; targeting agent) and the drug methotrexate (MTX) were conjugated to generation 5 PAMAM dendrimer (G5) through Cu-free "click" chemistry. The GLA was conjugated through a stable amide bond, and the MTX was conjugated either through ester (Es)- or amide (Am)-coupling, to generate G5-GLA(m)-(Es)MTX(n) and G5-GLA(m)-(Am)MTX(n), respectively. In serum-containing medium, free MTX was slowly released from "G5-GLA(m)-(Es)MTX(n)", with ~8% MTX released from the dendrimer in 72 h, whereas the MTX on G5-GLA(m)-(Am)MTX(n) was completely stable. The G5-GLA(m)-(Am)MTX(n) bound and internalized into PSMA-expressing LNCaP cells, but not into PSMA-negative PC3 cells. The conjugate-inhibited recombinant dihydrofolate reductase and induced potent cytotoxicity in the LNCaP cells, but not in the PC3 cells. Similar to the action of free GLA, stable amide-linked dendrimer-GLA was capable of inhibiting the enzyme N-acetylated α-linked acidic dipeptidase (NAALADase) activity of PSMA. The G5-GLA(m)-MTX(n) may serve as a serum-stable nanoparticle conjugate to specifically and effectively target and treat PSMA-overexpressing prostate tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baohua Huang
- Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences and Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan , Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
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Zheng Y, Fu F, Zhang M, Shen M, Zhu M, Shi X. Multifunctional dendrimers modified with alpha-tocopheryl succinate for targeted cancer therapy. MEDCHEMCOMM 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c3md00324h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Multifunctional generation 5-poly(amidoamine) dendrimers can be used as a platform to conjugate covalently alpha-tocopheryl succinate for targeted cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun Zheng
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials
- College of Materials Science and Engineering
- Donghua University
- Shanghai 201620, People's Republic of China
- College of Chemistry
| | - Fanfan Fu
- College of Chemistry
- Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology
- Donghua University
- Shanghai 201620, People's Republic of China
| | - Mengen Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials
- College of Materials Science and Engineering
- Donghua University
- Shanghai 201620, People's Republic of China
| | - Mingwu Shen
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials
- College of Materials Science and Engineering
- Donghua University
- Shanghai 201620, People's Republic of China
| | - Meifang Zhu
- College of Chemistry
- Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology
- Donghua University
- Shanghai 201620, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiangyang Shi
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials
- College of Materials Science and Engineering
- Donghua University
- Shanghai 201620, People's Republic of China
- College of Chemistry
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29
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Borchmann DE, Carberry TP, Weck M. "Bio"-macromolecules: polymer-protein conjugates as emerging scaffolds for therapeutics. Macromol Rapid Commun 2013; 35:27-43. [PMID: 24323623 DOI: 10.1002/marc.201300792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2013] [Revised: 11/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Polymer-protein conjugates are biohybrid macromolecules derived from covalently connecting synthetic polymers with polypeptides. The resulting materials combine the properties of both worlds: chemists can engineer polymers to stabilize proteins, to add functionality, or to enhance activity; whereas biochemists can exploit the specificity and complexity that Nature has bestowed upon its macromolecules. This has led to a wealth of applications, particularly within the realm of biomedicine. Polymer-protein conjugation has expanded to include scaffolds for drug delivery, tissue engineering, and microbial inhibitors. This feature article reflects upon recent developments in the field and discusses the applications of these hybrids from a biomaterials standpoint.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorothee E Borchmann
- Molecular Design Institute and Department of Chemistry, New York University, 100 Washington Sq. E., New York, New York, 10003, USA
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30
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Ryu JH, Shin M, Kim SA, Lee S, Kim H, Koo H, Kim BS, Song HK, Kim SH, Choi K, Kwon IC, Jeon H, Kim K. In vivo fluorescence imaging for cancer diagnosis using receptor-targeted epidermal growth factor-based nanoprobe. Biomaterials 2013; 34:9149-59. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2013.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2013] [Accepted: 08/12/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Gao Y, Xie J, Chen H, Gu S, Zhao R, Shao J, Jia L. Nanotechnology-based intelligent drug design for cancer metastasis treatment. Biotechnol Adv 2013; 32:761-77. [PMID: 24211475 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2013.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2013] [Revised: 10/19/2013] [Accepted: 10/29/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Traditional chemotherapy used today at clinics is mainly inherited from the thinking and designs made four decades ago when the Cancer War was declared. The potency of those chemotherapy drugs on in-vitro cancer cells is clearly demonstrated at even nanomolar levels. However, due to their non-specific effects in the body on normal tissues, these drugs cause toxicity, deteriorate patient's life quality, weaken the host immunosurveillance system, and result in an irreversible damage to human's own recovery power. Owing to their unique physical and biological properties, nanotechnology-based chemotherapies seem to have an ability to specifically and safely reach tumor foci with enhanced efficacy and low toxicity. Herein, we comprehensively examine the current nanotechnology-based pharmaceutical platforms and strategies for intelligent design of new nanomedicines based on targeted drug delivery system (TDDS) for cancer metastasis treatment, analyze the pros and cons of nanomedicines versus traditional chemotherapy, and evaluate the importance that nanomaterials can bring in to significantly improve cancer metastasis treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Gao
- Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Institute, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Jingjing Xie
- Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Institute, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Haijun Chen
- Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Institute, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350002, China; Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fujian 350108, China
| | - Songen Gu
- Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Institute, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Rongli Zhao
- Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Institute, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Jingwei Shao
- Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Institute, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Lee Jia
- Cancer Metastasis Alert and Prevention Institute, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350002, China.
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32
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Silpe JE, Sumit M, Thomas TP, Huang B, Kotlyar A, van Dongen MA, Banaszak Holl MM, Orr BG, Choi SK. Avidity modulation of folate-targeted multivalent dendrimers for evaluating biophysical models of cancer targeting nanoparticles. ACS Chem Biol 2013; 8:2063-71. [PMID: 23855478 DOI: 10.1021/cb400258d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
We investigated two types of generation 5 polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimers, each conjugated stochastically with a mean number of 5 or 10 methotrexate (MTX) ligands per dendrimer (G5-MTX5, G5-MTX10), for their binding to surface-immobilized folate binding protein (FBP) as a function of receptor density. The binding study was performed under flow by surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy. Two multivalent models were examined to simulate binding of the dendrimer to the receptor surface, showing that at relatively high receptor density, both dendrimer conjugates exhibit high avidity. However, upon reducing the receptor density by a factor of 3 and 13 relative to the high density level, the avidity of the lower-valent G5-MTX5 decreases by up to several orders of magnitude (KD = nM to μM), whereas the avidity of G5-MTX10 remains largely unaffected regardless of the density variation. Notably, on the 13-fold reduced FBP surface, G5-MTX5 displays binding kinetics similar to that of monovalent methotrexate, which is patently different from the still tight binding of the higher-valent G5-MTX10. Thus, the binding analysis demonstrates that avidity displayed by multivalent MTX conjugates varies in response to the receptor density and can be modulated for achieving tighter, more specific binding to the higher receptor density by modulation of ligand valency. We believe this study provides experimental evidence supportive of the mechanistic hypothesis of multivalent NP uptake to a cancer cell over a healthy cell where the diseased cell expresses the folate receptor at higher density.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin E. Silpe
- Michigan
Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, ‡Macromolecular Science
and Engineering, §Program in Biomedical Sciences, ∥Department of Internal Medicine, ⊥Department of Chemistry, and #Department of Physics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
48109, United States
| | - Madhuresh Sumit
- Michigan
Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, ‡Macromolecular Science
and Engineering, §Program in Biomedical Sciences, ∥Department of Internal Medicine, ⊥Department of Chemistry, and #Department of Physics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
48109, United States
| | - Thommey P. Thomas
- Michigan
Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, ‡Macromolecular Science
and Engineering, §Program in Biomedical Sciences, ∥Department of Internal Medicine, ⊥Department of Chemistry, and #Department of Physics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
48109, United States
| | - Baohua Huang
- Michigan
Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, ‡Macromolecular Science
and Engineering, §Program in Biomedical Sciences, ∥Department of Internal Medicine, ⊥Department of Chemistry, and #Department of Physics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
48109, United States
| | - Alina Kotlyar
- Michigan
Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, ‡Macromolecular Science
and Engineering, §Program in Biomedical Sciences, ∥Department of Internal Medicine, ⊥Department of Chemistry, and #Department of Physics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
48109, United States
| | - Mallory A. van Dongen
- Michigan
Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, ‡Macromolecular Science
and Engineering, §Program in Biomedical Sciences, ∥Department of Internal Medicine, ⊥Department of Chemistry, and #Department of Physics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
48109, United States
| | - Mark M. Banaszak Holl
- Michigan
Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, ‡Macromolecular Science
and Engineering, §Program in Biomedical Sciences, ∥Department of Internal Medicine, ⊥Department of Chemistry, and #Department of Physics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
48109, United States
| | - Bradford G. Orr
- Michigan
Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, ‡Macromolecular Science
and Engineering, §Program in Biomedical Sciences, ∥Department of Internal Medicine, ⊥Department of Chemistry, and #Department of Physics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
48109, United States
| | - Seok Ki Choi
- Michigan
Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, ‡Macromolecular Science
and Engineering, §Program in Biomedical Sciences, ∥Department of Internal Medicine, ⊥Department of Chemistry, and #Department of Physics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
48109, United States
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33
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Intelligent design of multifunctional lipid-coated nanoparticle platforms for cancer therapy. Ther Deliv 2013; 3:1429-45. [PMID: 23323560 DOI: 10.4155/tde.12.127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Nanotechnology is rapidly evolving and dramatically changing the paradigms of drug delivery. The small sizes, unique chemical properties, large surface areas, structural diversity and multifunctionality of nanoparticles prove to be greatly advantageous for combating notoriously therapeutically evasive diseases such as cancer. Multifunctional nanoparticles have been designed to enhance tumor uptake through either passive or active targeting, while also avoiding reticuloendothelial system uptake through the incorporation of PEG onto the surface. First-generation nanoparticle systems, such as liposomes, are good carriers for drugs and nucleic acid therapeutics, although they have some limitations. These lipid bilayers are now being utilized as excellent carriers for drug-loaded, solid core particles such as iron oxide, mesoporus silica and calcium phosphate. In this article, their design, as well as their multifunctional role in cancer therapy are discussed.
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Choi SK, Myc A, Silpe JE, Sumit M, Wong PT, McCarthy K, Desai AM, Thomas TP, Kotlyar A, Holl MMB, Orr BG, Baker JR. Dendrimer-based multivalent vancomycin nanoplatform for targeting the drug-resistant bacterial surface. ACS NANO 2013; 7:214-228. [PMID: 23259666 DOI: 10.1021/nn3038995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Vancomycin represents the preferred ligand for bacteria-targeting nanosystems. However, it is inefficient for emerging vancomycin-resistant species because of its poor affinity to the reprogrammed cell wall structure. This study demonstrates the use of a multivalent strategy as an effective way for overcoming such an affinity limitation in bacteria targeting. We designed a series of fifth generation (G5) poly(amidoamine) (PAMAM) dendrimers tethered with vancomycin at the C-terminus at different valencies. We performed surface plasmon resonance (SPR) studies to determine their binding avidity to two cell wall models, each made with either a vancomycin-susceptible (D)-Ala-(D)-Ala or vancomycin-resistant (D)-Ala-(D)-Lac cell wall precursor. These conjugates showed remarkable enhancement in avidity in the cell wall models tested, including the vancomycin-resistant model, which had an increase in avidity of four to five orders of magnitude greater than free vancomycin. The tight adsorption of the conjugate to the model surface corresponded with its ability to bind vancomycin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus bacterial cells in vitro as imaged by confocal fluorescent microscopy. This vancomycin platform was then used to fabricate the surface of iron oxide nanoparticles by coating them with the dendrimer conjugates, and the resulting dendrimer-covered magnetic nanoparticles were demonstrated to rapidly sequester bacterial cells. In summary, this article investigates the biophysical basis of the tight, multivalent association of dendrimer-based vancomycin conjugates to the bacterial cell wall, and proposes a potential new use of this nanoplatform in targeting Gram-positive bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seok Ki Choi
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA.
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35
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Zhu J, Shi X. Dendrimer-based nanodevices for targeted drug delivery applications. J Mater Chem B 2013; 1:4199-4211. [DOI: 10.1039/c3tb20724b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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36
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Yin Z, Liu N, Ma M, Wang L, Hao Y, Zhang X. A novel EGFR-targeted gene delivery system based on complexes self-assembled by EGF, DNA, and activated PAMAM dendrimers. Int J Nanomedicine 2012; 7:4625-35. [PMID: 22942644 PMCID: PMC3428245 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s30671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)-targeted gene delivery is a promising approach in gene therapy against EGFR-positive cancer. In addition, macromolecules, such as polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimers, are potential nonviral gene carriers in this therapy because of their biocompatibility and modifiable features. To achieve the goal of selectively enhancing the transfection efficiency in EGFR-positive cancer cells, the researchers developed chemical approaches of EGF-dendrimer conjugate, which were effective but complicated. Studies on liposomes reveal that self-assembly is another effective but simpler approach in EGF modification. Moreover, properly activated PAMAM dendrimers exhibit higher transfection efficiency, but little research has been done on its ligand-modification. In this study, we developed and characterized a novel gene-delivery system based on activated EGF-dendriplexes, which is formed via self-assembly by EGF and complexes prepared by activated PAMAM dendrimer and plasmid DNA. Such complexes exhibit desired features compared to nonmodified or non-activated dendriplexes in vitro, including selective enhancement of transfection efficiency in EGFR-positive cells, decreased cytotoxicity, and low agonist effect. In vivo experimentation shows their EGFR-positive tumor targeted biodistribution and increased transfection efficiency at EGFR-positive tumors. Our results demonstrated that activated EGF-dendriplexes are safe and effective carriers for delivering gene drugs to EGFR-positive cells, which makes these complexes a promising targeted nonviral gene-delivery system for auxiliary cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Yin
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutics, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
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37
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Black KCL, Yi J, Rivera JG, Zelasko-Leon DC, Messersmith PB. Polydopamine-enabled surface functionalization of gold nanorods for cancer cell-targeted imaging and photothermal therapy. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2012; 8:17-28. [PMID: 22891865 DOI: 10.2217/nnm.12.82] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM A novel biomimetic strategy was employed for presenting antibodies on gold nanorods (NRs) to target growth factor receptors on cancer cells for use in photothermal therapy. MATERIALS & METHODS Polydopamine (PD) was polymerized onto gold NRs, and EGF receptor antibodies (anti-EGFR) were immobilized onto the layer. Cell-binding affinity and light-activated cell death of cancer cells incubated with anti-EGFR-PD-NRs were quantified by optical imaging. RESULTS PD was deposited onto gold NRs, and antibodies were bound to PD-coated NRs. Anti-EGFR-PD-NRs were stable in media, and were specifically bound to EGFR-overexpressing cells. Illumination of cells targeted with anti-EGFR-PD-NRs enhanced cell death compared with nonirradiated controls and cells treated with antibody-free NRs. CONCLUSION PD facilitates the surface functionalization of gold NRs with biomolecules, allowing cell targeting and photothermal killing of cancer cells. PD can potentially coat a large variety of nanoparticles with targeting ligands as a strategy for biofunctionalization of diagnostic and therapeutic nanoparticles.
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38
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Thomas TP, Huang B, Choi SK, Silpe JE, Kotlyar A, Desai AM, Zong H, Gam J, Joice M, Baker JR. Polyvalent dendrimer-methotrexate as a folate receptor-targeted cancer therapeutic. Mol Pharm 2012; 9:2669-2676. [PMID: 22827500 DOI: 10.1021/mp3002232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Our previous studies have demonstrated that a generation 5 dendrimer (G5) conjugated with both folic acid (FA) and methotrexate (MTX) has a higher chemotherapeutic index than MTX alone. Despite this, batch-to-batch inconsistencies in the number of FA and MTX molecules linked to each dendrimer led to conjugate batches with varying biological activity, especially when scaleup synthesis was attempted. Since the MTX is conjugated through an ester linkage, there were concerns that biological inconsistency could also result from serum esterase activity and differential bioavailability of the targeted conjugate. In order to resolve these problems, we undertook a novel approach to synthesize a polyvalent G5-MTX(n) conjugate through click chemistry, attaching the MTX to the dendrimer through an esterase-stable amide linkage. Surface plasmon resonance binding studies show that a G5-MTX(10) conjugate synthesized in this manner binds to the FA receptor (FR) through polyvalent interaction showing 4300-fold higher affinity than free MTX. The conjugate inhibits dihydrofolate reductase, and induces cytotoxicity in FR-expressing KB cells through FR-specific cellular internalization. Thus, the polyvalent MTX on the dendrimer serves the dual role as a targeting molecule as well as a chemotherapeutic drug. The newly synthesized G5-MTX(n) conjugate may serve as a FR-targeted chemotherapeutic with potential for cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thommey P Thomas
- Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Baohua Huang
- Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Seok Ki Choi
- Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Justin E Silpe
- Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Alina Kotlyar
- Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Ankur M Desai
- Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Hong Zong
- Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Jeremy Gam
- Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Melvin Joice
- Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - James R Baker
- Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
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39
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Kaminskas LM, Boyd BJ, Porter CJH. Dendrimer pharmacokinetics: the effect of size, structure and surface characteristics on ADME properties. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2012; 6:1063-84. [PMID: 21955077 DOI: 10.2217/nnm.11.67] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendrimers show increasing promise as drug-delivery vectors and can be generated with a wide range of scaffold structures, sizes and surface functionalities. To this point, the majority of studies of dendrimer-based drug-delivery systems have detailed pharmacodynamic outcomes, or have followed the pharmacokinetics of a solubilized or conjugated drug. By contrast, detailed commentary on the in vivo fate of the dendrimer carrier is less evident, even though the pharmacokinetics of the carrier will likely dictate both pharmacodynamic and toxicokinetic outcomes. In the current article, the influence of size, structure and surface functionality on the absorption, distribution, metabolism and elimination (ADME) properties of dendrimers have been examined and the implications of these findings for delivery system design are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa M Kaminskas
- Drug Delivery Disposition & Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University. 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia
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40
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Huang B, Kukowska-Latallo JF, Tang S, Zong H, Johnson KB, Desai A, Gordon CL, Leroueil PR, Baker JR. The facile synthesis of multifunctional PAMAM dendrimer conjugates through copper-free click chemistry. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2012; 22:3152-6. [PMID: 22480432 PMCID: PMC3331967 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2012.03.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2012] [Revised: 03/08/2012] [Accepted: 03/13/2012] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The facile conjugation of three azido modified functionalities, namely a therapeutic drug (methotrexate), a targeting moiety (folic acid), and an imaging agent (fluorescein) with a G5 PAMAM dendrimer scaffold with cyclooctyne molecules at the surface through copper-free click chemistry is reported. Mono-, di-, and tri-functional PAMAM dendrimer conjugates can be obtained via combinatorial mixing of different azido modified functionalities simultaneously or sequentially with the dendrimer platform. Preliminary flow cytometry results indicate that the folic acid targeted nanoparticles are efficiently binding with KB cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baohua Huang
- Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
| | - Jolanta F. Kukowska-Latallo
- Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
| | - Shengzhuang Tang
- Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
| | - Hong Zong
- Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
| | - Kali B. Johnson
- Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
| | - Ankur Desai
- Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
| | - Chris L. Gordon
- Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
| | - Pascale R. Leroueil
- Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
| | - James R. Baker
- Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
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41
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Kamaly N, Xiao Z, Valencia PM, Radovic-Moreno AF, Farokhzad OC. Targeted polymeric therapeutic nanoparticles: design, development and clinical translation. Chem Soc Rev 2012; 41:2971-3010. [PMID: 22388185 PMCID: PMC3684255 DOI: 10.1039/c2cs15344k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1133] [Impact Index Per Article: 94.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Polymeric materials have been used in a range of pharmaceutical and biotechnology products for more than 40 years. These materials have evolved from their earlier use as biodegradable products such as resorbable sutures, orthopaedic implants, macroscale and microscale drug delivery systems such as microparticles and wafers used as controlled drug release depots, to multifunctional nanoparticles (NPs) capable of targeting, and controlled release of therapeutic and diagnostic agents. These newer generations of targeted and controlled release polymeric NPs are now engineered to navigate the complex in vivo environment, and incorporate functionalities for achieving target specificity, control of drug concentration and exposure kinetics at the tissue, cell, and subcellular levels. Indeed this optimization of drug pharmacology as aided by careful design of multifunctional NPs can lead to improved drug safety and efficacy, and may be complimentary to drug enhancements that are traditionally achieved by medicinal chemistry. In this regard, polymeric NPs have the potential to result in a highly differentiated new class of therapeutics, distinct from the original active drugs used in their composition, and distinct from first generation NPs that largely facilitated drug formulation. A greater flexibility in the design of drug molecules themselves may also be facilitated following their incorporation into NPs, as drug properties (solubility, metabolism, plasma binding, biodistribution, target tissue accumulation) will no longer be constrained to the same extent by drug chemical composition, but also become in-part the function of the physicochemical properties of the NP. The combination of optimally designed drugs with optimally engineered polymeric NPs opens up the possibility of improved clinical outcomes that may not be achievable with the administration of drugs in their conventional form. In this critical review, we aim to provide insights into the design and development of targeted polymeric NPs and to highlight the challenges associated with the engineering of this novel class of therapeutics, including considerations of NP design optimization, development and biophysicochemical properties. Additionally, we highlight some recent examples from the literature, which demonstrate current trends and novel concepts in both the design and utility of targeted polymeric NPs (444 references).
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazila Kamaly
- Laboratory of Nanomedicine and Biomaterials, Department of Anesthesiology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Zeyu Xiao
- Laboratory of Nanomedicine and Biomaterials, Department of Anesthesiology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Pedro M. Valencia
- The David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research and Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Aleksandar F. Radovic-Moreno
- The David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research and Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Omid C. Farokhzad
- Laboratory of Nanomedicine and Biomaterials, Department of Anesthesiology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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42
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Kaminskas LM, McLeod VM, Porter CJH, Boyd BJ. Association of chemotherapeutic drugs with dendrimer nanocarriers: an assessment of the merits of covalent conjugation compared to noncovalent encapsulation. Mol Pharm 2012; 9:355-73. [PMID: 22250750 DOI: 10.1021/mp2005966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Cancer is a leading cause of death within developed nations, and part of this morbidity is due to difficulties associated with its treatment. Currently, anticancer therapy relies heavily upon the administration of small molecule cytotoxic drugs that attack both cancerous and noncancerous cells due to limited selectivity of the drugs and widespread distribution of the cytotoxic molecules throughout the body. The antitumor efficacy and systemic toxicity of existing chemotherapeutic drugs can, however, be improved by employing formulation and particle engineering approaches. Thus, drug delivery systems can be developed that more specifically target tumor tissue using both passive (such as the enhanced permeation and retention effect) and active (through the use of cancer targeting ligands) modalities. Dendrimers are one such system that can be developed with high structural monodispersity, long plasma circulation times and precise control over surface structure and biodistribution properties. Chemotherapeutic drugs can be associated with dendrimers via covalent conjugation to the surface, or via encapsulation of drugs within the structure. Each of these approaches has demonstrated therapeutic benefit relative to the administration of free drug. Thus far, however, there has not been a systematic review toward which drug association approach will provide the best outcomes in terms of antitumor efficacy and systemic toxicity. Hence, the current literature is reviewed here and recommendations are proposed as to the suggested approach to develop dendrimers as tumor targeted drug-delivery vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa M Kaminskas
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville Campus, 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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43
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Witte AB, Timmer CM, Gam JJ, Choi SK, Banaszak Holl MM, Orr BG, Baker JR, Sinniah K. Biophysical characterization of a riboflavin-conjugated dendrimer platform for targeted drug delivery. Biomacromolecules 2012; 13:507-16. [PMID: 22191428 DOI: 10.1021/bm201566g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The present study describes the biophysical characterization of generation-five poly(amidoamine) (PAMAM) dendrimers conjugated with riboflavin (RF) as a cancer-targeting platform. Two new series of dendrimers were designed, each presenting the riboflavin ligand attached at a different site (isoalloxazine at N-3 and d-ribose at N-10) and at varying ligand valency. Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) were used to determine the binding activity for riboflavin binding protein (RfBP) in a cell-free solution. The ITC data shows dendrimer conjugates have K(D) values of ≥ 465 nM on a riboflavin basis, an affinity ~93-fold lower than that of free riboflavin. The N-3 series showed greater binding affinity in comparison with the N-10 series. Notably, the affinity is inversely correlated with ligand valency. These findings are also corroborated by DSC, where greater protein-conjugate stability is achieved with the N-3 series and at lower ligand valency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda B Witte
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Calvin College, 3201 Burton Street South East, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49546, United States
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44
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45
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Huang B, Tang S, Desai A, Lee KH, Leroueil PR, Baker JR. Novel Poly(EThyleneAmidoAmine) (PETAA) dendrimers produced through a unique and highly efficient synthesis. POLYMER 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2011.10.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
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46
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Dendrimer-based multivalent methotrexates as dual acting nanoconjugates for cancer cell targeting. Eur J Med Chem 2011; 47:560-72. [PMID: 22142685 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2011.11.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2011] [Revised: 11/08/2011] [Accepted: 11/15/2011] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Cancer-targeting drug delivery can be based on the rational design of a therapeutic platform. This approach is typically achieved by the functionalization of a nanoparticle with two distinct types of molecules, a targeting ligand specific for a cancer cell, and a cytotoxic molecule to kill the cell. The present study aims to evaluate the validity of an alternative simplified approach in the design of cancer-targeting nanotherapeutics: conjugating a single type of molecule with dual activities to nanoparticles, instead of coupling a pair of orthogonal molecules. Herein we investigate whether this strategy can be validated by its application to methotrexate, a dual-acting small molecule that shows cytotoxicity because of its potent inhibitory activity against dihydrofolate reductase and that binds folic acid receptor, a tumor biomarker frequently upregulated on the cancer cell surface. This article describes a series of dendrimer conjugates derived from a generation 5 polyamidoamine (G5 PAMAM) presenting a multivalent array of methotrexate and also demonstrates their dual biological activities by surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy, a cell-free enzyme assay, and cell-based experiments with KB cancer cells.
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Ward BB, Dunham T, Majoros IJ, Baker JR. Targeted dendrimer chemotherapy in an animal model for head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2011; 69:2452-9. [PMID: 21684654 DOI: 10.1016/j.joms.2010.12.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2010] [Revised: 12/09/2010] [Accepted: 12/27/2010] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Nanoparticle drug delivery offers a potential solution in the treatment of cancer. Using a heterotopic tumor model for head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC), tumors of variable folate binding protein-alpha (FBP-α) have been treated to delineate receptor necessity as well as efficacy and toxicity of folate targeted chemotherapy. MATERIALS AND METHODS University of Michigan Squamous Cell Carcinoma (UM-SCC) and American Type Culture Collection (ATCC) cell lines were screened using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction for FBP-α expression. Acetylated generation 5 dendrimers conjugated to the targeting moiety folic acid and the therapeutic moiety methotrexate were fabricated and administered to severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) CB-17 mice inoculated with UM-SCC-1, UM-SCC-17B, and UM-SCC-22B cancer cells. Mice were injected with targeted therapy, free methotrexate, or saline control and monitored for drug efficacy and toxicity. RESULTS Targeted therapy was effective relative to receptor level expression. Targeted therapy could be delivered in molar doses 3 times that of free drug. The treatment of a high folate expression tumor cell population was noted to have increased efficacy over saline (P < .01) and free methotrexate (P = .03) as well as decreased systemic toxicity. CONCLUSIONS This report represents the first translation of dendrimer-based chemotherapy to HNSCC and underscores its effectiveness as an antitumor agent in human cancer cell lines with lower levels of FBP-α than the in vitro and in vivo models previously reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brent B Ward
- Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, and Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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Sui M, Liu W, Shen Y. Nuclear drug delivery for cancer chemotherapy. J Control Release 2011; 155:227-36. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2011.07.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2011] [Revised: 07/26/2011] [Accepted: 07/29/2011] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Targeting the lymphatics using dendritic polymers (dendrimers). Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2011; 63:890-900. [PMID: 21683746 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2011.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2010] [Accepted: 02/22/2011] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Dendrimers are unique biomaterials that are constructed by the stepwise addition of layers (generations) of polymer around a central core. They can be constructed with a range of molecular weights and have a polyfunctional surface that facilitates the attachment of drugs and pharmacokinetic modifiers such PEG or targeting moieties. These properties have led to considerable interest in the development of dendrimers for a range of biomedical applications. After subcutaneous administration, larger dendrimers in particular (> 8 nm), preferentially drain from the injection site into the peripheral lymphatic capillaries and therefore have potential as lymphatic imaging agents for magnetic resonance and optical fluorescence lymphangiography and as vectors for drug-targeting to lymphatic sites of disease progression. In general, lymphatic targeting of dendrimers is enhanced by increasing size although ultimately larger constructs may be incompletely absorbed from the injection site. Increasing hydrophilicity and reducing surface charge enhances drainage from subcutaneous injection sites, but the reverse is true of uptake into lymph nodes where charge and hydrophobicity promote retention. Larger hydrophilic dendrimers are also capable of extravasation from the systemic circulation, absorption into the lymphatic system and recirculation into the blood. Lymphatic recirculation may therefore be a characteristic of PEGylated dendrimers with long systemic circulation times.
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Huang B, Desai A, Zong H, Tang S, Leroueil P, Baker JR. Copper-free click conjugation of methotrexate to a PAMAM dendrimer platform. Tetrahedron Lett 2011; 52:1411-1414. [PMID: 21383864 DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2010.12.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The synthesis of a generation 5 (G5) poly(amidoamine) (PAMAM) dendrimer platform having cyclooctyne ligands that were subsequently be used for a copper-free Huisgen 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition (click reaction) with azido modified methotrexate is described. The G5 PAMAM dendrimer was first partially (70%) acetylated and then coupled with 20 cyclooctyne ligands through amide bonds. The remaining primary amine groups on the dendrimer surface were neutralized by acetylation. The platform was then "clicked" with different numbers (5, 10, and 17) of γ-azido functionalized methotrexate. The copper-free click reactions were stoichiometric with excellent yields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baohua Huang
- Michigan Nanotechnology Institute for Medicine and Biological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
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