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Wei H, Smith JP. Machine Learning for Deconvolution and Segmentation of Hyperspectral Imaging Data from Biopharmaceutical Resins. Mol Pharm 2024. [PMID: 39288012 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.4c00540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/19/2024]
Abstract
Biopharmaceutical resins are pivotal inert matrices used across industry and academia, playing crucial roles in a myriad of applications. For biopharmaceutical process research and development applications, a deep understanding of the physical and chemical properties of the resin itself is frequently required, including for drug purification, drug delivery, and immobilized biocatalysis. Nevertheless, the prevailing methodologies currently employed for elucidating these important aspects of biopharmaceutical resins are often lacking, frequently require significant sample alteration, are destructive or ionizing in nature, and may not adequately provide representative information. In this work, we propose the use of unsupervised machine learning technologies, in the form of both non-negative matrix factorization (NMF) and k-means segmentation, in conjugation with Raman hyperspectral imaging to rapidly elucidate the molecular and spatial properties of biopharmaceutical resins. Leveraging our proposed technology, we offer a new approach to comprehensively understanding important resin-based systems for application across biopharmaceuticals and beyond. Specifically, focusing herein on a representative resin widely utilized across the industry (i.e., Immobead 150P), our findings showcase the ability of our machine learning-based technology to molecularly identify and spatially resolve all chemical species present. Further, we offer a comprehensive evaluation of optimal excitation for hyperspectral imaging data collection, demonstrating results across 532, 638, and 785 nm excitation. In all cases, our proposed technology deconvoluted, both spatially and spectrally, resin and glass substrates via NMF. After NMF deconvolution, image segmentation was also successfully accomplished in all data sets via k-means clustering. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report utilizing the combination of two unsupervised machine learning methodologies, combining NMF and k-means, for the rapid deconvolution and segmentation of biopharmaceutical resins. As such, we offer a powerful new data-rich experimentation tool for application across multidisciplinary fields for a deeper understanding of resins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Wei
- Process Research & Development, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., West Point, Pennsylvania 19486, United States
| | - Joseph P Smith
- Process Research & Development, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., West Point, Pennsylvania 19486, United States
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2
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Denlinger KL, Carr P, Waddell DC, Mack J. A Recyclable, Metal-Free Mechanochemical Approach for the Oxidation of Alcohols to Carboxylic Acids. Molecules 2020; 25:E364. [PMID: 31963148 PMCID: PMC7024246 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25020364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2019] [Revised: 12/23/2019] [Accepted: 12/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The oxidation of primary alcohols under mechanochemical conditions in a Spex8000M Mixer/Mill was investigated. To facilitate ease of separation and recyclability, a polystyrene-bound version of a TEMPO catalyst was employed. When paired with Oxone® in a stainless-steel vial with a stainless-steel ball, several primary alcohols were successfully oxidized to the corresponding carboxylic acids. The product was isolated using gravity filtration, which also allowed for the polystyrene-bound TEMPO catalyst to be recovered and reused in subsequent oxidation reactions. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that the size and steric hindrance of the primary alcohol does not hinder the rate of the reaction. Finally, the aldehyde was selectively obtained from a primary alcohol under ball milling conditions by using a combination of non-supported TEMPO with a copper vial and copper ball.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - James Mack
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cincinnati, 301 Clifton court, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0172, USA; (K.L.D.); (P.C.); (D.C.W.)
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3
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Brehm E, Breinbauer R. Investigation of the origin and synthetic application of the pseudodilution effect for Pd-catalyzed macrocyclisations in concentrated solutions with immobilized catalysts. Org Biomol Chem 2013; 11:4750-6. [DOI: 10.1039/c3ob41020j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Hintersteiner M, Buehler C, Auer M. On-Bead Screens Sample Narrower Affinity Ranges of Protein-Ligand Interactions Compared to Equivalent Solution Assays. Chemphyschem 2012; 13:3472-80. [DOI: 10.1002/cphc.201200117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2012] [Revised: 06/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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5
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Patrick AG, Ulijn RV. Hydrogels for the detection and management of protease levels. Macromol Biosci 2011; 10:1184-93. [PMID: 20593363 DOI: 10.1002/mabi.200900457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The design of hydrogels that simultaneously report protease activity and remove excess protease from solution is elucidated. The hydrogels, based on amino-PEGA, combine enzyme-specific peptides flanked with FRET complimented by charged amino acid residues that facilitate protease uptake via short range electrostatic interactions. Enzymatic response was analysed using a combination of fluorescence spectroscopy, two-photon microscopy and UV/Vis spectroscopy. An optimised elastase-responsive hydrogel resulted in lowering of elastase levels below those typical of chronic wounds. The versatility of the modular-design approach was demonstrated by development of matrix metalloprotease and chymotrypsin sensitive systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison G Patrick
- Materials Science Centre, School of Materials, The University of Manchester, Grosvenor Street, Manchester, UK
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Choi JH, Lee TK, Byun JW, Lee YS. Preparation of a core–shell type MBHA resin and its application for solid-phase peptide synthesis. Tetrahedron Lett 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2009.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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7
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Dam HH, Beijleveld H, Reinhoudt DN, Verboom W. In the Pursuit for Better Actinide Ligands: An Efficient Strategy for their Discovery. J Am Chem Soc 2008; 130:5542-51. [DOI: 10.1021/ja800222a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Henk H. Dam
- Laboratories of Supramolecular Chemistry and Technology and Molecular Nanofabrication, Mesa+ Research Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Hans Beijleveld
- Laboratories of Supramolecular Chemistry and Technology and Molecular Nanofabrication, Mesa+ Research Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - David N. Reinhoudt
- Laboratories of Supramolecular Chemistry and Technology and Molecular Nanofabrication, Mesa+ Research Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Willem Verboom
- Laboratories of Supramolecular Chemistry and Technology and Molecular Nanofabrication, Mesa+ Research Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
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8
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Deere J, McConnell G, Lalaouni A, Maltman BA, Flitsch SL, Halling PJ. Real-Time Imaging of Protease Action on Substrates Covalently Immobilised to Polymer Supports. Adv Synth Catal 2007; 349:1321-1326. [PMID: 19779571 PMCID: PMC2749704 DOI: 10.1002/adsc.200700044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
We report for the first time single bead spatially resolved activity measurements of solid-phase biocatalytic systems followed in real-time. Trypsin cleavage of Bz-Arg-OH and subtilisin cleavage of Z-Gly-Gly-Leu-OH each liberate a free amino group on aminocoumarin covalently immobilised to PEGA(1900) beads [a co-polymer of poly(ethylene glycol) with molecular mass of 1900 cross-linked with acrylamide]. This restores fluorescence which is imaged in optical sections by two-photon microscopy. For trypsin cleavage, fluorescence is restricted initially to surface regions, with more than 1 hour needed before reaction is fully underway in the bead centre, presumably reflecting slow enzyme diffusion. In contrast, for subtilisin cleavage fluorescence develops throughout the bead more quickly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Deere
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Thomas Graham Building, 295 Cathedral Street, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, G1 1XL, U.K
| | - Gail McConnell
- Centre for Biophotonics, Strathclyde Institute for Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, 27 Taylor Street, Glasgow, G4 0NR, U.K
| | - Antonia Lalaouni
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Thomas Graham Building, 295 Cathedral Street, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, G1 1XL, U.K
| | - Beatrice A. Maltman
- School of Chemistry and MIB, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, U.K
| | - Sabine L. Flitsch
- School of Chemistry and MIB, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, M1 7DN, U.K
| | - Peter J. Halling
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Thomas Graham Building, 295 Cathedral Street, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, G1 1XL, U.K
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Stair JL, White BR, Rowland A, Holcombe JA. Quantitative Determination of Single-Bead Metal Content from a Peptide Combinatorial Library. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 8:929-34. [PMID: 17096583 DOI: 10.1021/cc060100m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
An electrothermal vaporizer inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ETV-ICPMS) was used to quantitatively screen metals bound to single polystyrene (TentaGel) beads with immobilized oligopeptides. Tests were performed using ETV-ICPMS to screen a series of identical beads as well as a series of combinatorial library beads exposed to a multimetal solution composed of Mg2+, Mn2+, Ni2+, Cu2+, Cd2+, Eu2+, and Pb2+. The residual metal content remaining bound to the beads after acid extractions was also analyzed by solid sampling of the entire bead using oxygen ashing in the ETV. Nine beads (80 mesh, 0.25 mmol g(-1) nominal capacity) containing covalently attached polyaspartic acid (PLAsp; n = 20) showed metal extract concentrations in the range of 4-130 ng mL(-1). After normalizing by bead volume, the precision of capacity measurements in a single bead (7-14%) was primarily dictated by analysis error and contributions from bead diameter measurement with negligible contributions, surprisingly, from variations in site density from bead to bead. A sample combinatorial library of the sequence GXXGXXGXXGXX (X = cysteine, aspartic acid, or glutamic acid and G = glycine) (60 mesh, 0.25 mmol g(-1) nominal capacity) was also used to demonstrate the utility of this method. Metal extract concentrations ranged from 1 to 1300 ng mL(-1) with significant concentration variation between beads, indicating the individual selectivity on each bead. For these larger beads, analysis precision (i.e., capacity precision) was further improved to 3-10% due to the overall increase in bead metal content. Through metal extract determinations, ETV-ICPMS was shown to be a viable nondestructive tool for full metal characterization of "hit" sequences belonging to a combinatorial library.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline L Stair
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
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Purdue MJ, MacElroy JMD, O'Shea DF, Okuom MO, Blum FD. A comparative study of the properties of polar and nonpolar solvent/solute/polystyrene solutions in microwave fields via molecular dynamics. J Chem Phys 2006; 125:114902. [PMID: 16999506 DOI: 10.1063/1.2353112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The influence of an applied microwave field on the dynamics of methylamine-dichloromethane (DCM) mixtures bound within atactic polystyrene (a-PS) over a range of polymer densities from 30 to 94 wt % polymer was examined using atomistic molecular dynamics simulations. This study is an extension of previous studies on methylamine transport in relatively polar polystyrene solutions of methanol and dimethylformamide [M. J. Purdue et al., J. Chem. Phys. 124, 204904 (2006)]. A direct comparison is made across the three types of polystyrene solutions. Consideration is given to both solvent and reagent transport within the polymer solutions under zero-field conditions and in an external electromagnetic field in the canonical ensemble (NVT) at 298.0 K. Various frequencies up to 10(4) GHz and a rms electric field intensity of 0.1 VA were applied. The simulation studies were validated by comparison of the simulated zero-field self-diffusion coefficients of DCM in a-PS with those obtained using pulsed-gradient spin-echo NMR spectrometry. Athermal effects of microwave fields on solute transport behavior within polymer solutions are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J Purdue
- UCD School of Chemical and Bioprocess Engineering, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
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Egelhaaf HJ, Rademann J. Understanding Supported Reactions in Spherical Compartments: A General Algorithm To Model and Determine Rate Constants, Diffusion Coefficients, and Spatial Product Distributions. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 7:929-41. [PMID: 16283804 DOI: 10.1021/cc050015z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A general algorithm allowing the numerical modeling of the time and space dependence of product formation in spherical reaction volumes is described. The algorithm is described by the complete set of mass balance equations. On the basis of these equations, the effects of the diffusion coefficient, reaction rate, bead size, reagent excess, and packing density of the resin beads on the overall reaction rates are determined for second-order reactions. Experimental data of reaction progress are employed to calculate reaction rates and diffusion coefficients in polymer-supported reactions. In addition, the conditions for shell-like product formation are determined, and various strategies for the radial patterning of resin beads are compared. The effect of diffusion on polymer-supported enzyme-catalyzed reactions of the Michaelis-Menten type is treated, as well. Finally, the effects of typical nonideal solid-phase phenomena, namely, the inhomogeneity of rate constants and the concentration dependence of diffusion coefficients, on overall rates are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans-Joachim Egelhaaf
- Medicinal Chemistry, Leibniz Institute for Molecular Pharmacology (FMP), Berlin, Germany
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12
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Wong LS, Birembaut F, Brocklesby WS, Frey JG, Bradley M. Resin Bead Micro-UV−Visible Absorption Spectroscopy. Anal Chem 2005; 77:2247-51. [PMID: 15801760 DOI: 10.1021/ac049319i] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The construction and design of a microscope coupled with a miniature UV-vis spectrometer is described. This was applied to the study of dyes linked to solid supports and displayed good correlation in spectral shape and lambda(max) values when compared to the dyes in solution, as well as showing a linear relationship between dye loading and UV-vis absorbance. The spectral profiles of these dyes at various pH's were measured and used to determine the pK(a) of the dyes on the beads, which were compared with the pK(a) values of the dyes in solution, thus enabling the dye-loaded beads to act as pH sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Shin Wong
- School of Chemistry, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JJ, UK
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13
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Marchetto R, Cilli EM, Jubilut GN, Schreier S, Nakaie CR. Determination of Site−Site Distance and Site Concentration within Polymer Beads: A Combined Swelling-Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Study. J Org Chem 2005; 70:4561-8. [PMID: 15932290 DOI: 10.1021/jo0483318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
This work proposes a combined swelling-electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) approach aiming at determining some unusual polymer solvation parameters relevant for chemical processes occurring inside beads. Batches of benzhydrylamine-resin (BHAR), a copolymer of styrene-1% divinylbenzene containing phenylmethylamine groups were, labeled with the paramagnetic amino acid 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl-4-amine-4-carboxylic acid (TOAC), and their swelling properties and EPR spectra were examined in DCM and DMF. By taking into account the BHARs labeling degrees, the corresponding swelling values, and some polymer structural characteristics, it was possible to calculate polymer swelling parameters, among them, the volume and the number of sites per bead, site-site distances and site concentration. The latter values ranged from 17 to 170 A and from 0.4 to 550 mM, respectively. EPR spectroscopy was applied to validate the multistep calculation strategy of these swelling parameters. Spin-spin interaction was detected in the labeled resins at site-site distances less than approximately 60 A or probe concentrations higher than approximately 1 x 10(-2) M, in close agreement with the values obtained for the spin probe free in solution. Complementarily, the yield of coupling reactions in different resins indicated that the greater the inter-site distance or the lower the site concentration, the faster the reaction. The results suggested that the model and the experimental measurements developed for the determination of solvation parameters represent a relevant step forward for the deeper understanding and improvement of polymer-related processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reinaldo Marchetto
- Department of Biochemistry and Technological Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, UNESP, Araraquara, São Paulo 14800-900, Brazil
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Lee TK, Ryoo SJ, Byun JW, Lee SM, Lee YS. Preparation of Core−Shell-Type Aminomethyl Polystyrene Resin and Characterization of Its Functional Group Distribution. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 7:170-3. [PMID: 15762742 DOI: 10.1021/cc0498635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tae-Kyung Lee
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Korea
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15
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Mandair GS, Yu Z, Galaffu N, Bradley M, Russell AE. Microscopic infrared mapping of chloromethylated polystyrene resin beads. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 2004; 58:1282-1287. [PMID: 18070405 DOI: 10.1366/0003702042475475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
In solid-phase combinatorial chemistry, analyses are performed using a wide range of analytical techniques ranging from gel-phase nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) to colorimetric tests to elemental analysis. However, these techniques cannot be used to interrogate functional group distribution at the single-bead level. This paper explores the feasibility of using Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) microscopy to examine site distribution on chloromethylated polystyrene resin beads and to quantify the loading after coupling with 4-cyanophenol, an IR tagging agent. FT-IR microscopy also provides a unique opportunity to better understand the reactivity of highly cross-linked polymer beads under a range of chemical conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gurjit S Mandair
- Combinatorial Centre of Excellence, Department of Chemistry, University of Southampton, Highfield, Southampton SO17 1BJ, United Kingdom
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16
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Solid phase synthesis of 6-acylamino-1-alkyl/aryl-4-oxo-1,4-dihydrocinnoline-3-carboxamides. Tetrahedron 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2004.06.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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17
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Kim H, Cho JK, Chung WJ, Lee YS. Core−Shell-Type Resins for Solid-Phase Peptide Synthesis: Comparison with Gel-Type Resins in Solid-Phase Photolytic Cleavage Reaction. Org Lett 2004; 6:3273-6. [PMID: 15355030 DOI: 10.1021/ol048815q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
[reaction: see text] Novel core-shell-type resins with a rigid core and amino-functionalized flexible shell were prepared with 2,4,6-trichloro-1,3,5-triazine (CNC) and Jeffamine ED-600 starting from 1% cross-linked aminomethyl (AM) polystyrene resins. All of the amino groups were located outside the resin beads, and the loading capacity was 0.2-0.4 mmol/g. The amount of CNC treated was a determining factor in the properties of the final resins. The core-shell-type resins showed superior performances in terms of the initial loading of amino acid and the photocleavage reaction compared to the gel-type resins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanyoung Kim
- School of Chemical Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-744, Korea
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Pina-Luis G, Badía R, Díaz-García ME, Rivero IA. Fluorometric Monitoring Of Organic Reactions On Solid Phase. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 6:391-7. [PMID: 15132599 DOI: 10.1021/cc0300412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The direct monitoring of reaction progress on solid supports by fluorescence spectroscopy is described. An immobilized fluorescent tracer molecule (dansyl chloride) is used to monitor the reaction on OH resins (Argopore Wang, PS Wang, and Argogel Wang), both in batch and in parallel chemistry. Fluorescence measurements were obtained directly on solid phase. The method demonstrated to be a valuable tool for the quantitative determination of resin-bound hydroxyl groups, to study reaction kinetics and for continuously monitoring the progress of the conversion of the hydroxyl resins into the chlorinated ones. The procedure proposed is highly sensitive compared to the traditional ones. The system can be extended to monitor a variety of reactions on solid supports, and in conjunction with a well-established technique such as flow analysis, basic studies on solid-phase become possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Pina-Luis
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Havana, Havana, Cuba
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Walsh D, Wu D, Chang YT. Understanding the effects of the polymer support on reaction rates and kinetics: knowledge toward efficient synthetic design. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2003; 7:353-61. [PMID: 12826123 DOI: 10.1016/s1367-5931(03)00054-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Solid-phase organic synthesis (SPOS) has an ever-expanding role in the field of organic synthesis. Partially out of difficulty, and partially from the rapid speed of progress, few basic studies on the role of the physical structure of the resin have been undertaken, and the dissemination of the existing knowledge has been slow. Major advances have been made in the understanding of the many factors that govern a SPOS reaction's performance as a function of the choice of solid support.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Walsh
- Department of Chemistry, New York University, 29 Washington Place, Brown Building, Room 564, New York, NY 10003, USA
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Ulijn RV, Brazendale I, Margetts G, Flitsch SL, McConnell G, Girkin J, Halling PJ. Two-photon microscopy to spatially resolve and quantify fluorophores in single-bead chemistry. JOURNAL OF COMBINATORIAL CHEMISTRY 2003; 5:215-7. [PMID: 12739935 DOI: 10.1021/cc030024c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rein V Ulijn
- School of Chemistry, King's Buildings, The University of Edinburgh, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JJ, U.K
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