Electron Spin Resonance: A Major Probe for Molecular Conductors

A Joint Venture of Ab Initio Molecular Dynamics, Coupled Cluster Electronic Structure Methods, and Liquid-State Theory to Compute Accurate Isotropic Hyperfine Constants of Nitroxide Probes in Water

The isotropic hyperfine coupling constant (HFCC, Aiso) of a pH-sensitive spin probe in a solution, HMI (2,2,3,4,5,5-hexamethylimidazolidin-1-oxyl, C9H19N2O) in water, is computed using an ensemble of state-of-the-art computational techniques and is gauged against X-band continuous wave electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) measurement spectra at room temperature. Fundamentally, the investigation aims to delineate the cutting edge of current first-principles-based calculations of EPR parameters in aqueous solutions based on using rigorous statistical mechanics combined with correlated electronic structure techniques. In particular, the impact of solvation is described by exploiting fully atomistic, RISM integral equation, and implicit solvation approaches as offered by ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) of the periodic bulk solution (using the spin-polarized revPBE0-D3 hybrid functional), embedded cluster reference interaction site model integral equation theory (EC-RISM), and polarizable continuum embedding (using CPCM) of microsolvated complexes, respectively. HFCCs are obtained from efficient coupled cluster calculations (using open-shell DLPNO-CCSD theory) as well as from hybrid density functional theory (using revPBE0-D3). Re-solvation of "vertically desolvated" spin probe configuration snapshots by EC-RISM embedding is shown to provide significantly improved results compared to CPCM since only the former captures the inherent structural heterogeneity of the solvent close to the spin probe. The average values of the Aiso parameter obtained based on configurational statistics using explicit water within AIMD and from EC-RISM solvation are found to be satisfactorily close. Using either such explicit or RISM solvation in conjunction with DLPNO-CCSD calculations of the HFCCs provides an average Aiso parameter for HMI in aqueous solution at 300 K and 1 bar that is in good agreement with the experimentally determined one. The developed computational strategy is general in the sense that it can be readily applied to other spin probes of similar molecular complexity, to aqueous solutions beyond ambient conditions, as well as to other solvents in the longer run.

Paramagnetic Molecular Semiconductors Combining Anisotropic Magnetic Ions with TCNQ Radical Anions

We report the synthesis, magnetic properties, and transport properties of paramagnetic metal complexes, [Co(DMF)₄(TCNQ)₂](TCNQ)₂ (1), [La(DMF)₈(TCNQ)](TCNQ)₅ (2), and [Nd(DMF)₇(TCNQ)](TCNQ)₅ (3) (DMF = N,N-dimethylformamide, TCNQ = 7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethane). All three compounds contain fractionally charged TCNQ^δ- anions (0 < δ < 1) and mononuclear complex cations in which the coordination environment of a metal center includes several DMF molecules and one or two terminally coordinated TCNQ^δ- anions. The coordinated TCNQ^δ- anions participate in π-π stacking interactions with noncoordinated TCNQ^δ- anions, forming columnar substructures that provide efficient charge-transporting pathways. As a result, temperature-dependent conductivity measurements demonstrate that all three compounds exhibit semiconducting behavior.

The Simplest Model for Doped Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT): Single-crystalline EDOT Dimer Radical Cation Salts

Although doped poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) is extensively used in electronic devices, their molecular-weight distributions and inadequately defined structures have hindered the elucidation of their underlying conduction mechanism. In this study, we introduce the simplest discrete oligomer models: EDOT dimer radical cation salts. Single-crystal structural analyses revealed their one-dimensional (1D) columnar structures, in which the donors were uniformly stacked. Band calculations identified 1D metallic band structures with a strong intracolumnar orbital interaction (band width W≈1 eV), implying the origin of the high conductivity of doped PEDOT. Interestingly, the salts exhibited semiconducting behavior reminiscent of genuine Mott states as a result of electron-electron repulsion (U) dominant over W. This study realized basic models with tunable W and U to understand the conduction mechanism of doped PEDOT through structural modification in oligomers, including the conjugation length.

Intermolecular Resonance Correlates Electron Pairs Down a Supermolecular Chain: Antiferromagnetism in K-Doped p-Terphenyl

Recent interest in potassium-doped p-terphenyl has been fueled by reports of superconductivity at T_c values surprisingly high for organic compounds. Despite these interesting properties, studies of the structure-function relationships within these materials have been scarce. Here, we isolate a phase-pure crystal of potassium-doped p-terphenyl: [K(222)]₂[p-terphenyl₃]. Emerging antiferromagnetism in the anisotropic structure is studied in depth by magnetometry and electron spin resonance. Combining these experimental results with density functional theory calculations, we describe the antiferromagnetic coupling in this system that occurs in all 3 crystallographic directions. The strongest coupling was found along the ends of the terphenyls, where the additional electron on neighboring p-terphenyls antiferromagnetically couple. This delocalized bonding interaction is reminiscent of the doubly degenerate resonance structure depiction of polyacetylene. These findings hint toward magnetic fluctuation-induced superconductivity in potassium-doped p-terphenyl, which has a close analogy with high T_c cuprate superconductors. The new approach described here is very versatile as shown by the preparation of two additional salts through systematic changing of the building blocks.

Interdigitated conducting tetrathiafulvalene-based coordination networks

Assembly of a novel ethylenedithio-tetrathiafulvalene (EDT-TTF) derivative bearing two adjacent 4-thiopyridyl groups with M(NCS)2 nodes (M = Fe, Co) leads to two isostructural 1D coordination polymers showing an enhancement of their electronic conductivity by six orders of magnitude (10-6vs. 10-12 S cm-1), upon surface oxidation by iodine and subsequent generation of EDT-TTF-based radicals.

Polymorphism in a π stacked Blatter radical: structures and magnetic properties of 3-(phenyl)-1-(pyrid-2-yl)-1,4-dihydrobenzo[e][1,2,4]triazin-4-yl

The first polymorphism example in Blatter radicals, is reported.

Strong Enhancement of π-Electron Donor/Acceptor Ability by Complementary DD/AA Hydrogen Bonding

π-Conjugated organic materials possess a wide range of tunable optoelectronic properties which are dictated by their molecular structure and supramolecular arrangement. While many efforts have been put into tuning the molecular structure to achieve the desired properties, rational supramolecular control remains a challenge. Here, we report a novel series of supramolecular materials formed by the co-assembly of weak π-electron donor (indolo[2,3-a]carbazole) and acceptor (aromatic o-quinones) molecules via complementary hydrogen bonding. The resulting polarization creates a drastic perturbation of the molecular energy levels, causing strong charge transfer in the weak donor-acceptor pairs. This leads to a significant lowering (up to 1.5 eV) of the band gaps, intense absorption in the near-IR region, very short π-stacking distances (≥3.15 Å), and strong ESR signals in the co-crystals. By varying the strength of the acceptor, the characteristics of the complexes can be tuned between intrinsic, gate-, or light-induced semiconductivity with a p-type or ambipolar transport mechanism.

Electronic engineering of a tetrathiafulvalene charge-transfer salt via reduced symmetry induced by combined substituents

A 1 : 1 metallic charge-transfer salt is obtained by cosublimation of (Z,E)-(SMe)2Me2TTF and TCNQ. X-ray diffraction studies confirm the formation of segregated stacks comprising donor and acceptor molecules in [(E)-(SMe)2Me2TTF](TCNQ). The crystal packing features lateral SS interactions between TTF stacks, which is in sharp contrast to that in (TTF)(TCNQ). Structural analysis and theoretical studies afford a partial charge-transfer (ρ ≈ 0.52), leading to a system with the electronic structure close to quarter-filled. Resistivity measurements reveal that this material behaves as a metal down to 56 K and 22 K at 1 bar and 14.9 kbar, respectively. The thermopower is negative in the metallic regime, indicating the dominant role of the acceptor stacks for the observed conducting behavior. Analysis of single-crystal EPR spectra shows the remaining spin susceptibility at 4.3 K, suggesting the importance of the Hubbard U correction. These results highlight the judicious engineering of electronic and geometrical effects on the TTF core; the combined use of methyl and thiomethyl groups has decreased the TCNQ bandwidth while maintaining the segregated stacks, converting the metal to insulator (M-I) transition to more 4kF like. In addition, the enhanced SS contacts between the TTF stacks lead to more rapidly decreasing M-I transition temperature under various pressures.

Superlattice Induced by Charge Order in the Organic Spin Chain (TMTTF)2X (X = SbF6, AsF6, and PF6) Revealed by High-Field Electron Paramagnetic Resonance

We have investigated the charge ordering phase of the quasi-one-dimensional quantum antiferromagnet (TMTTF)₂X (X = SbF₆, AsF₆, and PF₆) using high-fields/frequency electron paramagnetic resonance. In addition to the uniform displacement of the counteranions involved in the charge-order phase, we report the existence of a superlattice between the spin chains in the direction c, caused by the space modulation of the charge order. When the field is high enough, the magnetic decoupling of the spin chains allows us to estimate the interaction between the chains, J _c < 1 mK, three orders of magnitude lower than expected from the mean field theory.

Acid-Responsive Conductive Nanofiber of Tetrabenzoporphyrin Made by Solution Processing

While cofacial one-dimensional (1-D) π stacking of a planar aromatic molecule is ideal for the construction of conduction systems, such molecules, including tetrabenzoporphyrin (BP), prefer to form edge-to-face stacking through CH-π interactions. We report here that the BP molecules spontaneously form a 1-D cofacial stack in chloroform containing 1% trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) and that a bundle of the formed nanofiber shows acid-responsive 1-D conductivity as high as 1904 S m^-1. A small fraction (2.7%) of BP in the fiber exists in a cation radical state, and 1.5 equiv of TFA is located in an intercolumnar void. Dedoping and redoping of TFA with trimethylamine vapor results in 1300-2700-fold decreases and increases, respectively, in the conductivity and also the amount of the radical cation. The conductivity of the fiber also shows a correlation with the pK_a of acid dopants.

Molecular cocrystals: design, charge-transfer and optoelectronic functionality

This perspective article primarily focuses on the research work related to optoelectronic properties of organic charge transfer cocrystals.

Organic Cocrystals: New Strategy for Molecular Collaborative Innovation

Organic cocrystals that are composed of two or more components usually exhibit novel, unpredictable, and even unique properties rather than a simple combination of the properties of their components, such as white-light emission, ambipolar charge transport, nonlinear optics, and ferroelectricity. Since cocrystal engineering represents a novel strategy for synthesizing multifunctional materials, which opens the door for molecular collaborative innovation, it has aroused much attention in recent years. However, as it is also a relatively new research field, it is only in its early stages of development. In order to provide readers with an understanding of the future design of cocrystals for potential applications, a brief review of organic cocrystals is presented here, including an introduction to organic cocrystals as well as discussions of cocrystal preparation, methods and techniques of characterization, and multifunctional applications of cocrystals. Moreover, the outlook for further studies and applications of cocrystal engineering is considered.

Charge carrier mobility in organic molecular materials probed by electromagnetic waves

Charge carrier mobility is an essential parameter providing control over the performance of semiconductor devices fabricated using a variety of organic molecular materials. Recent design strategies toward molecular materials have been directed at the substitution of amorphous silicon-based semiconductors; accordingly, numerous measurement techniques have been designed and developed to probe the electronic conducting nature of organic materials bearing extremely wide structural variations in comparison with inorganic and/or metal-oxide semiconductor materials. The present perspective highlights the evaluation methodologies of charge carrier mobility in organic materials, as well as the merits and demerits of techniques examining the feasibility of organic molecules, crystals, and supramolecular assemblies in semiconductor applications. Beyond the simple substitution of amorphous silicon, we have attempted to address in this perspective the systematic use of measurement techniques for future development of organic molecular semiconductors.

EPR study of polyaniline synthesized enzymatically in the presence of submicrometer-sized AOT vesicles

EPR spectroscopy was used to examine the magnetic properties of two enzymatically synthesized polyaniline (PANI) samples obtained in the presence of submicrometer-sized vesicles formed from sodium bis(2-ethylhexyl)sulfosuccinate (AOT) as templates. PANI-HRPC-AOT was synthesized with horseradish peroxidase isoenzyme C (HRPC) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as oxidant while PANI-TvL-AOT was prepared with Trametes versicolor laccase (TvL) and dioxygen (O2) as oxidant. A commercial conductive sample of the emeraldine salt form of polyaniline (PANI-ES) was also used for comparison in order to correlate the experimental data obtained for PANI-HRPC-AOT and PANI-TvL-AOT with the properties of the well-characterized PANI-ES. It was shown that a model based on the concept of correlated polaronic bands could be applied for the interpretation of the EPR spectra of all three examined samples, although PANI-HRPC-AOT and PANI-TvL-AOT were significantly less conductive than PANI-ES. The magnetic properties of the PANI samples could be related to their conductivities, whereby a low conductivity was ascribed to decreased interchain spin interactions which were detectable from a splitting of the triplet spectrum at low temperatures (5-10 K). The obtained effective distance between the polyaniline chains is larger for enzymatically synthesized PANI than for PANI-ES, most likely mainly due to the presence of AOT which could not be removed completely during the work-up. AOT influences the chain conformation and the average chain-chain distance.

Two-step electrochemically directed synthesis of Pr4N(TCNQ)n (n=1, 2): preparation, structure, and properties of a magnetically isolated dimer and a quasi-one-dimensional chain

Solid-state electrochemistry of a tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ)-modified electrode in contact with a tetrapropylammonium cation (Pr(4)N(+)) electrolyte showed two electron-transfer steps to give Pr(4)N(TCNQ)(2) (1) and Pr(4)N(TCNQ) (2) rather than the traditional one-electron step to directly give Pr(4)N(TCNQ). Two thermodynamically stable Pr(4)N(+)-TCNQ stoichiometries, 1 and 2, were synthesized and characterized. The degree of charge transfer (ρ) calculated from the crystal structure is -0.5 for the TCNQ moieties in 1 and -1.0 for those in 2. Raman spectra for Pr(4)N(TCNQ)(2) show only one resonance for the extracyclic C=C stretching at 1423 cm(-1), which lies approximately midway between that of TCNQ at 1454 cm(-1) and TCNQ(-) at 1380 cm(-1). Both the magnetic susceptibility and EPR spectra are temperature-dependent, with a magnetic moment close to that for one unpaired electron per (TCNQ)(2) unit in 1, whereas 2 is almost diamagnetic. Pressed discs of both complexes show conductivity (1-2×10(-5) S cm(-1)) in the semiconductor range. For 1, the position of zero current for the steady-state voltammograms implies 50% of TCNQ(-) and 50% TCNQ(0) is present in solution, thereby supporting a dissociation of (TCNQ)(2)(-) in solution, but is indicative of only TCNQ(-) being present for 2.

Field-Induced ESR Spectroscopy on Rubrene Single-Crystal Field-Effect Transistors

We investigate the electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy for the field-induced carriers in rubrene single-crystal field-effect transistors (SC-FETs), and compare the results with those on pentacene thin-film transistors (TFTs). We observe Lorentz-type ESR signal in rubrene SC-FETs whose linewidth is narrowed with increasing gate voltage and temperature. It demonstrates that the ESR linewidth is determined by motional narrowing effect as we reported on pentacene TFTs. Based on the observations, we discuss the multiple trap-and-release (MTR) processes in the two systems with and without grain boundaries.

A single-component molecular metal based on a thiazole dithiolate gold complex

A single component molecular conductor has been isolated from electrocrystallization of the monoanionic gold bis(dithiolene) complex based on the N-ethyl-1,3-thiazoline-2-thione-4,5-dithiolate (Et-thiazdt) ligand. The crystal structure of the system exhibits layers built from parallel uniform one-dimensional stacks of the planar molecule. At room temperature and ambient pressure the system is semiconducting (0.33 S x cm(-1)) with a small activation energy. However, the single crystal conductivity is strongly pressure dependent reaching 1000 S x cm(-1) at 21 kbar. At 13 kbar there is a crossover between semiconducting and metallic regimes. Thus, the present system is the first well characterized single-component molecular metal without TTF dithiolate ligands. First-principles DFT calculations show that the ground state is antiferromagnetic with a very small band gap. A simulation of the effect of pressure on the electronic structure provides a rationale for the observed variations of the conductivity and gives insight on how to further stabilize the metallic state of the system.

A series of strongly one-dimensional organic metals with strictly uniform stacks: (o-DMTTF)2X (X = Cl, Br, I)

The electrocrystallization of o-dimethyl-tetrathiafulvalene in the presence of halide anions affords 2:1 salts formulated as [o-DMTTF]2 X, (X = Cl, Br, I). The three salts are isomorphous, crystallizing in the tetragonal system, space group I42d, with the halide anion on the -4 site and the o-DMTTF molecule along a two-fold axis, forming strictly uniform stacks along c, and is further stabilized by C-H...X hydrogen bonds. Detailed physical investigations were performed on the bromide salt. It exhibits a metallic behaviour down to T(MI) = 50 K, while application of pressure moves the metal insulator transition to 39 K at 7.9 kbar. Band-structure calculations indicate a strong one-dimensional character, also confirmed by the anisotropy ratio of the conductivity, sigma / sigma = 500, as determined by two independent methods (four-contact, low-frequency transport measurements and analysis of the anisotropy of the Dysonian EPR line). The singular temperature dependence of the g tensor and the EPR line width at the phase transition suggests charge ordering.

Polaron motional narrowing of electron spin resonance in organic field-effect transistors

Polaron states in organic thin-film transistors (TFTs) were investigated by the electron spin resonance (ESR) technique. Gate-field-dependent and temperature-dependent single-Lorentzian ESR spectra were observed for field-induced polarons in pentacene TFTs, demonstrating the effect of motional narrowing due to polaron diffusion. Analyses of the ESR linewidth revealed a considerably long trapping time (tau_(C) approximately 0.7 ns), the variation of which is discussed in terms of the multiple trap-and-release model.

Tuning Intermolecular Magnetic Exchange Interactions in the Solids CxF2x(CNSSS)2(AsF6)2: Structural, EPR, and Magnetic Characterization of Dimeric (x = 2, 4) Diradicals

A series of diradical containing salts CxF2x(CNSSS)2(**2+0(AsF6-)2 {x = 2, 1[AsF6]2; x = 3, 3[AsF6]2; x = 4, 2[AsF6]2} have been prepared. 1[AsF6]2 and 2[AsF6]2 were fully characterized by X-ray, variable-temperature magnetic susceptibility, and solid-state EPR measurements, further allowing us to extend the number of examples of the family of rare 7pi RCNSSS(*+) radical cations. 1[AsF6]2: a = 6.5314(7) A, b = 7.5658(9) A, c = 9.6048(11) A, alpha = 100.962(2) degrees , beta = 96.885(2) degrees , gamma = 107.436(2) degrees , triclinic, space group P, Z = 1, T = 173 K. 2[AsF6]2: a = 10.6398(16) A, b = 7.9680(11) A, c = 12.7468(19) A, beta = 99.758(2) degrees , monoclinic, space group P21/c, Z = 2, T = 173 K. In the solid-state, CxF2x(CNSSS)2(**2+) (x = 2, 4) formed one-dimensional polymeric chains of dications containing discrete centrosymmetric radical pairs in which radicals were linked by four centered two-electron pi*-pi* bonds [12+, d(S...S) = 3.455(1) A; 22+, d(S...S) = 3.306(2) A]. The exchange interactions in these bonds were determined to be -500 +/- 30 and -900 +/- 90 cm-1, by variable temperature magnetic susceptibility measurements, respectively, providing rare experimental data on the singlet-triplet gaps in the field of thiazyl radicals. For 2[AsF6]2, the thermally excited triplet state was unambiguously characterized by EPR techniques [/D/ = 0.0254(8) cm(-1), /E/ = 0.0013(8) cm(-1)]. These experimental data implied a weakly associated nature of the radical moieties contained in the solids 1[AsF6]2 and 2[AsF6]2. Computational analysis of the dimerization process is presented, and we show that the 2c 4 electron pi*-pi* bonds in 1[AsF6]2 and 2[AsF6]2 have ca. 50% and 40% diradical character, respectively. In contrast, 3[AsF6]2.SO2, containing diradical C3F6(CNSSS)2(**2+) with an odd number of CF2 spacers, showed magnetic behavior that was consistent with the presence of monomeric radical centers in the solid state.

Characterization of the Diradical •NSNSC−CNSSN• and [NSNSC−CNSSN][MF6]n (n = 1, 2). The First Observation of an Excited Triplet State in Dimers of 7π −CNSSN• Radicals

Preparation and full characterization of the main-group diradical *NSNSC-CNSSN*, 8, the MF6- salt (As, Sb) of radical cation +NSNSC-CNSSN*, 8*+, and the AsF6- salt of the dication +NSNSC-CNSSN+, 82+, are presented. 8, a=6.717 (4), b=11.701(2), c=8.269(3) A, alpha=gamma=90, beta=106.69(3) degrees, monoclinic, space group P21/n, Z=4, T=203 K; 8SbF6, a=6.523(2), b=7.780(2), c=12.012(4) A, alpha=91.994(4), beta=96.716(4), gamma=09.177(4) degrees, triclinic, space group P, Z=2, T=198 K; 8[AsF6]2, a=12.7919(14), b=9.5760(11), c=18.532(2) A, alpha=gamma=90, beta=104.034(2) degrees, monoclinic, space group Pn, Z=6, T=198 K. Preparation of 8MF6 was carried out via a reduction of [CNSNS]2[MF6]2 (M=As, Sb) with either ferrocene or a SbPh3-NBu4Cl mixture. In the solid state, diamagnetic 8SbF6 contains centrosymmetric dimers [8*+]2 linked via two-electron four-centered pi*-pi* interactions with a thermally excited triplet state as detected by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). This is the first observation of a triplet excited state for a 7pi 1,2,3,5-dithiadiazolyl radical dimer. The singlet-triplet gap of the [-CNSSN*]2 radical pair was -1800+/-100 cm(-1) (-22+/-1 kJ/mol) with the ZFS components |D|=0.0267(6) cm(-1) and |E|=0.0012(1) cm(-1), corresponding to an in situ dimerization energy of ca. -11 kJ/mol. Cyclic voltammetry measurements of 8[AsF6]2 showed two reversible waves associated with a stepwise reduction of the two isomeric rings [E1/2 (+2/+1)=1.03 V; E1/2 (+1/0)=0.47 V, respectively]. 8MF6 (M=As, Sb) was further reduced to afford the mixed main-group diradical 8, containing two isomeric radical rings. In solution, 8 is thermodynamically unstable with respect to *NSSNC-CNSSN*, but is isolable in the solid state because of its low solubility in SO2. Likewise, 8SbF6, 8 is dimeric, with pi*-pi* interactions between different isomeric rings, and consequently diamagnetic; however, a slight increase in paramagnetism was observed upon grinding [from C=6.5(3)x10(-4) emu.K/mol and temperature-independent paramagnetism (TIP)=1.3(1)x10(-4) emu/mol to C=3.2(1)x10(-3) emu.K/mol and TIP=9.0(1)x10(-4) emu/mol], accompanied by an increase in the lattice-defect S=1/2 sites [from 0.087(1) to 0.43(1)%]. Computational analysis using the multiconfigurational approach [CASSCF(6,6)/6-31G*] indicated that the two-electron multicentered pi*-pi* bonds in [8*+]2 and [8]2 have substantial diradical characters, implying that their ground states are diradicaloid in nature. Our results suggest that the electronic structure of organic-radical ion pairs, for example, [TTF*+]2, [TCNE*-]2, [TCNQ*-]2, [DDQ*-]2, and related pi dimers, can be described in a similar way.

Room temperature electrical detection of spin coherence in C60

An experimental demonstration of electrical detection of coherent spin motion of weakly coupled, localized electron spins in thin fullerene C60 films at room temperature is presented. Pulsed electrically detected magnetic resonance experiments on vertical photocurrents through Al/C(60)/ZnO samples showed that an electron spin Rabi oscillation is reflected by transient current changes. The nature of possible microscopic mechanisms responsible for this spin to charge conversion as well as its implications for the readout of endohedral fullerene (N@C(60)) spin qubits are discussed.

Characterisation of the thermally accessible spin triplet state in dimers of the 7? ClCNSSS+? in the solid state

[ClCNSSS]2(2+) is the first example of a thiazyl radical dimer where population of a thermally excited spin triplet state has been detected, as is proved by VT-powder and single-crystal EPR spectroscopy.