Thiacalixarenes

Post-Synthetic Modification of Calix[4]arene Framework by Iridium-Mediated Alkyne Insertion into an Inert C-C Bond: A Novel Strategy for Unsymmetrical Macrocycles

As a novel synthetic method for unsymmetrical macrocycles, we herein developed a post-synthetic modification of calix[4]arenes by insertion of a terminal alkyne into an inert C(methylene)-C(aryl) bond of the macrocyclic framework. In this transformation, C-iridated calix[4]arenes, readily synthesized through C-H bond activation of the parent calix[4]arene, undergoes C(methylene)-C(aryl) bond cleavage followed by insertion of an alkyne to provide a ring-expanded calix[4]arene complex. Removal of the iridium metal from the resulting complex was readily accomplished by a simple treatment with an acid. The developed sequential method affords novel unsymmetrical, monofunctionalized macrocyclic compounds via 3 steps from the parent calix[4]arene in good yield. The unique unsymmetrical structures of the alkyne-inserted macrocycles were evaluated by X-ray single crystal analyses. On the basis of theoretical calculations, we propose a reaction mechanism involving an uncommon C-C bond cleavage step through δ-carbon elimination for the ring enlargement process.

Influence of halogen-halogen interactions in the self-assembly of pillar[5]arene-based supramolecular polymers

Halogen-halogen interactions play a pivotal role in the formation and stability of supramolecular assemblies. Herein, we investigate the assembly dynamics and dissociation pathways of linear supramolecular polymers based on pillar[5]arene-mediated by guest halogen-halogen interactions (C-X × X-C) in both the solution and solid states. The structure of the solid-state supramolecular assembly was determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. The binding affinities of four different 1,4-dihalobutane guests with pillar[5]arene were investigated by 1H NMR spectroscopic titration and isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC). The formation of the halogen-bonded linear supramolecular polymer in solution was demonstrated using diffusion-ordered spectroscopy (DOSY) and ITC. Our findings highlight the dependence of the dissociation process on halogen nature within the encapsulated guest, revealing that the process is entropically driven (TΔS = 27.12 kJ mol-1) and enthalpically disfavored (ΔH = 9.99 kJ mol-1). Moreover, the disassembly of supramolecular polymers promoted by N-containing compounds was investigated using 1H NMR spectroscopy and ITC, revealing that the process is driven both enthalpically (ΔH = -2.64 kJ mol-1) and entropically (TΔS = 15.70 kJ mol-1). Notably, the data suggest the formation of N⋯I bonding interactions at both ends of the inclusion guest, elucidating the intricate interplay of halogen interactions and host-guest chemistry in supramolecular polymer systems.

Reactivity of phenoxathiin-based thiacalixarenes towards C-nucleophiles

A starting thiacalix[4]arene can be easily transformed into oxidized phenoxathiin-based macrocycles 9 and 9', representing an unusual structural motif in calixarene chemistry. The presence of electron-withdrawing groups (SO2, SO) and the considerable internal strain caused by the condensed heterocyclic moiety render these molecules susceptible to nucleophilic attack. The reaction with various organolithium reagents provides a number of different products resulting from the cleavage of either the calixarene skeleton or the phenoxathiin group or both ways simultaneously. This enables the preparation of thiacalixarene analogues with unusual structural features, including systems containing a biphenyl fragment as a part of the macrocyclic skeleton. The above-described transformations, unparalleled in classical calixarene chemistry, clearly demonstrate the synthetic potential of this thiacalixarene subgroup.

Exciplex Formation by Complexation of an Electron-Accepting Guest in an Electron-Donating Pillar[5]arene Host Liquid

We present a novel system, a liquid-state pillar[5]arene decorated with tri(ethylene oxide) chains, that brings electron-donor and electron-acceptor molecules into proximity for efficient exciplex formation. The electron-accepting guests exhibit a blue-purple emission from a localized excited state upon excitation in common solvents. However, directly dissolving the guests in the electron-donating pillar[5]arene liquid (a bulk system) results in visible green emission from the formed exciplexes. In the bulk system, the guest molecules are always surrounded by excess pillar[5]arene molecules, resulting in the formation of mainly inclusion-type exciplexes. In the bulk system, energy migration occurs between the pillar[5]arene molecules. Excitation of the pillar[5]arenes results in a more intense green exciplex emission than that observed upon direct excitation of the guests. In summary, the pillar[5]arene liquid is a novel system for achieving efficient exciplex formation and energy migration that is different from typical solvent and solid systems.

Breaking Azacalix[4]arenes into Induline Derivatives

Tetraamino-tetranitro-azacalixarene 5 is at the crossroad of two different families of compounds depending on the conditions and the agent used to reduce the NO2 groups: (1) azacalixphyrin 7 in neutral medium, or (2) phenazinium of type 8 in acidic medium. The key role of the N-substituted amino functions at the periphery is highlighted by investigating octaaminoazacalixarene as a model compound, and by using the corresponding tetrahydroxy-tetranitro-azacalixarene 15 as a precursor, which behaves differently.

Chemical Site-Differentiation of Calix[4]arenes through Enforced Conformations by Confinement in a Cage

Desymmetrization of a symmetric skeleton enables late-stage functionalization of molecules. However, reagent-controlled desymmetrization by site-selective reactions of symmetric molecules remains a difficult synthetic strategy. Here, we found that complete confinement of a symmetric molecule within a coordination cage can desymmetrize the guest conformation, making it possible to site-selectively activate or protect the otherwise equivalent reaction sites of calix[4]arene derivatives. Multistep, one-cage reactions also demonstrated the transformation of an AAAA-type calix[4]arene into a lower symmetry ABAC-type one.

Organoselenium Compounds: Chemistry and Applications in Organic Synthesis

Selenium, originally described as a toxin, turns out to be a crucial trace element for life that appears as selenocysteine and its dimer, selenocystine. From the point of view of drug developments, selenium-containing drugs are isosteres of sulfur and oxygen with the advantage that the presence of the selenium atom confers antioxidant properties and high lipophilicity, which would increase cell membrane permeation leading to better oral bioavailability. In this article, we have focused on the relevant features of the selenium atom, above all, the corresponding synthetic approaches to access a variety of organoselenium molecules along with the proposed reaction mechanisms. The preparation and biological properties of selenosugars, including selenoglycosides, selenonucleosides, selenopeptides, and other selenium-containing compounds will be treated. We have attempted to condense the most important aspects and interesting examples of the chemistry of selenium into a single article.

Synthesis of Thiapillar[6]arenes Bearing Redox-Active (Hydro)quinone Groups. Electrochemical and XRD Study

Pillar[n]arenes are among the newest members of the macrocyclic family. Nevertheless, their conformational behavior and binding properties as well as redox properties of dealkylated pillar[n]arenes are well-studied. At the same time, introducing a heteroatom into a cyclophane macrocycle is already known to alter all the above properties drastically. This study presents a simple synthetic approach based on thia-Michael addition cyclization that readily resulted into hexathiapillar[6]arene with four phenylene units alternated by two redox-active hydroquinone moieties. The straightforward synthesis of the macrocycle enabled a systematic study of its conformation and redox behavior. The modification of hexathiapillar[6]arene afforded five functionalized derivatives, which were studied structurally in detail. The findings revealed interesting redox and structural properties of the macrocycle and its derivatives including the formation of crystal lattices with continuous channels and empty voids.

Synthesis, Structure, and Characterization of Thiacalix[4]-2,8-thianthrene

Sulfur-containing macrocycles have attracted substantial interest because they exhibit unique characteristics due to their polygonal ring-shaped skeleton. In this study, a thianthrene-based cyclic tetramer with the sulfur linker, thiacalix[4]-2,8-thianthrene (TC[4]TT), was successfully prepared from a cyclo-p-phenylenesulfide derivative using acid-induced intramolecular condensation. Single crystal X-ray diffraction revealed that TC[4]TT adopts an alternative octagonal form recessed to the inner side. Its internal cavity included small solvents, such as chloroform and carbon disulfide. Due to its polygonal geometry, TC[4]TT laminated in a honeycomb-like pattern with a porous channel. Furthermore, TC[4]TT showed fluorescence and phosphorescence emission in a CH₂Cl₂ solution at ambient and liquid nitrogen temperatures. Both emission bands were slightly redshifted compared with those of the reference compounds (di(thanthren-2-yl)sulfane (TT₂S) and thianthrene (TT)). This work describes a sulfur-containing thiacalixheterocycle-based macrocyclic system with intriguing supramolecular chemistry based on molecular tiling and photophysical properties in solution.

The Unexpected Chemistry of Thiacalix[4]arene Monosulfoxide

Thiacalix[4]arene monosulfoxide 4 possesses a very unusual chemistry, as demonstrated by several unprecedented derivatives in calixarene chemistry. Interestingly, compound 4 cannot be prepared by the dealkylation of its corresponding tetramethoxy derivative using BBr₃. Instead, the borate complex is formed with a boron bound by the two neighboring phenolic oxygens and a sulfoxide group. A similar type of borate complex with a spirodienone fragment was then isolated as a by-product. The oxidation of monosulfoxide with Chloramine-T did not provide the expected spirodienone moiety, but rather a complex oxathiane-based spiroheterocyclic part containing a chlorine atom. X-ray analyses confirmed the structures of the unusual products and feasible formation mechanisms were proposed. These results provide further evidence of the distinction between thiacalixarene chemistry and the chemistry of classical CH₂ analogues.

Thiacalixarene Appended Azo-based Supramolecular Systems: Self-assembly and Photo Tuning Reversible Liquid Crystalline Properties

Four new azo-based supramolecular materials containing thiacalixarene core substituted by variable alkoxy groups (TFA₁ -TFA₄ ) have been designed and synthesized for the mesomorphic and photoswitching properties. The liquid crystalline behavior were accomplished by using DSC, POM, and XRD studies. All azo-based thiacalixarene based materials with short and higher chain length display columnar hexagonal mesophase with broad temperature range. The thermal behavior of all the materials was investigated by DSC and TGA study. The structural and conformational study of the lower rim functionalized materials was confirmed by using different techniques. These thiacalixarene moulded liquid crystalline compounds shows columnar self-assembly type behavior and higher thermal stability. The introduction of bi-substituted azo-ester network towards the lower rim of thiacalixarene core has impact on the electron delocalization and liquid crystalline properties. The photoswitching properties suggested cis and trans azo-isomerization under radiation of UV light and higher thermal back relaxation time. The mesogenic behaviour of compound TFA₂ and TFA₄ were demolished by the influence of cis and trans isomerization. The structure-property correlation is studied to understand the variation in mesogenic properties with the substitution of variable alkoxy side chain.

Albumin/Thiacalix[4]arene Nanoparticles as Potential Therapeutic Systems: Role of the Macrocycle for Stabilization of Monomeric Protein and Self-Assembly with Ciprofloxacin

The therapeutic application of serum albumin is determined by the relative content of the monomeric form compared to dimers, tetramers, hexamers, etc. In this paper, we propose and develop an approach to synthesize the cone stereoisomer of p-tert-butylthiacalix[4]arene with sulfobetaine fragments stabilization of monomeric bovine serum albumin and preventing aggregation. Spectral methods (UV-vis, CD, fluorescent spectroscopy, and dynamic light scattering) established the influence of the synthesized compounds on the content of monomeric and aggregated forms of BSA even without the formation of stable thiacalixarene/protein associates. The effect of thiacalixarenes on the efficiency of protein binding with the antibiotic ciprofloxacin was shown by fluorescence spectroscopy. The binding constant increases in the presence of the macrocycles, likely due to the stabilization of monomeric forms of BSA. Our study clearly shows the potential of this macrocycle design as a platform for the development of the fundamentally new approaches for preventing aggregation.

Thiapillar[6]arene: Synthesis, Functionalization, and Properties

The design and synthesis of new macrocycles with well-defined cavities represent a promising avenue for the development of new supramolecular hosts. Moreover, the ability to diversify a macrocycle through chemical manipulations enables the fine-tuning and tailoring of properties. In this report, the synthesis and functionalization of thiapillar[6]arene, a pillar[6]arene analogue in which the bridging methylene groups are replaced by sulfurs, are described. First, we demonstrate the scalable synthesis of the parent thiapillar[6]arene. Next, the diversification of thiapillar[6]arene is demonstrated via functionalization of the phenols and oxidation of the sulfur atoms. The solid-state structures of two thiapillar[6]arene derivatives are reported, and the effect of sulfur oxidation state on the macrocyclic conformation is discussed. All sulfone derivatives described were found to demonstrate high luminescence quantum yields (ΦF = 0.43–0.66) in CH2Cl2 with emission maxima between λ = 404 and 462 nm. Lastly, assessment of the electrochemical properties of the sulfone derivatives by square-wave voltammetry revealed electron-accepting ability owing to the oxidation of the sulfur atoms, with four reduction events observed for the analogues surveyed. Overall, this work implicates thiapillar[6]arene as a modular scaffold amenable for further applications in host–guest chemistry and sensing.

Copillar[5]arene Chemistry: Synthesis and Applications

Research on pillar[n]arenes has witnessed a very quick expansion. This emerging class of functionalized macrocyclic oligoarenes not only offers host–guest properties due to the presence of the central cavity, but also presents a wide variety of covalent functionalization possibilities. This short review focuses on copillararenes, a subfamily of pillar[n]arenes. In copillararenes, at least one of the hydroquinone units bears different functional groups compared to the others. After having defined the particular features of copillararenes, this short review compares the different synthetic strategies allowing their construction. Some key applications and future perspectives are also described.

1 Introduction

2 General Features of Pillar[5]arenes

3 Synthesis of Functionalized Copillar[4+1]arenes

4 Concluding Remarks

Protein Frameworks with Thiacalixarene and Zinc

Controlled protein assembly provides a means to generate biomaterials. Synthetic macrocycles such as the water-soluble sulfonato-calix[n]arenes are useful mediators of protein assembly. Sulfonato-thiacalix[4]arene (tsclx ₄ ), with its metal-binding capacity, affords the potential for simultaneous macrocycle- and metal-mediated protein assembly. Here, we describe the tsclx ₄ -/Zn-directed assembly of two proteins: cationic α-helical cytochrome c (cyt c) and neutral β-propeller Ralstonia solanacearum lectin (RSL). Two co-crystal forms were obtained with cyt c, each involving multinuclear zinc sites supported by the cone conformation of tsclx ₄ . The tsclx ₄ /Zn cluster acted as an assembly node via both lysine encapsulation and metal-mediated protein-protein contacts. In the case of RSL, tsclx ₄ adopted the 1,2-alternate conformation and supported a dinuclear zinc site with concomitant encapsulation and metal-binding of two histidine side chains. These results, together with the knowledge of thiacalixarene/metal nanoclusters, suggest promising applications for thiacalixarenes in biomaterials and MOF fabrication.

Noncovalently bound and mechanically interlocked systems using pillar[n]arenes

Pillar[n]arenes are pillar-shaped macrocyclic compounds owing to the methylene bridges linking the para-positions of the units. Owing to their unique pillar-shaped structures, these compounds exhibit various excellent properties compared with other cyclic host molecules, such as versatile functionality using various organic synthesis techniques, substituent-dependent solubility, cavity-size-dependent host-guest properties in organic media, and unit rotation along with planar chiral inversion. These advantages have enabled the high-yield synthesis and rational design of pillar[n]arene-based mechanically interlocked molecules (MIMs). In particular, new types of pillar[n]arene-based MIMs that can dynamically convert between interlocked and unlocked states through unit rotation have been produced. The highly symmetrical pillar-shaped structures of pillar[n]arenes result in simple NMR spectra, which are useful for studying the motion of pillar[n]arene wheels in MIMs and creating sophisticated MIMs with higher-order structures. The creation and application of polymeric MIMs based on pillar[n]arenes is also discussed.

Expanded Mercaptocalixarenes: A New Kind of Macrocyclic Ligands for Stabilization of Polynuclear Thiolate Clusters

The syntheses and properties of expanded 4‐tert‐butyl‐mercaptocalix[4]arenes, in which the methylene linkers are replaced by −CH₂NRCH₂− or −CH₂NRCH₂− and −CH₂NRCH₂CH₂CH₂NRCH₂− units, are described. The new macrocycles were obtained in a step‐wise manner, utilizing fully protected, i. e. S‐alkylated, derivatives of the oxidation‐sensitive thiophenols in the cyclisation steps. Reductive cleavage of the macrobicyclic or macrotricyclic intermediates (6, 7, 11) afforded the free thiophenols (H₄8, H₄9, and H₄12) in preparative yields as their hydrochloride salts. The protected proligands can exist in two conformations, resembling the “cone” and “1,3‐alternate” conformations found for the parent calix[4]arenes. The free macrocycles do not show conformational isomerism, but are readily oxidized forming intramolecular disulfide linkages. Preliminary complexation experiments show that these expanded mercaptocalixarenes can serve as supporting ligands for tetranuclear thiolato clusters.

A Calix[3]acridan-Based Host-Guest Cocrystal Exhibiting Efficient Thermally Activated Delayed Fluorescence

A supramolecular strategy to construct thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) materials through host-guest charge transfer interactions was proposed. Consequently, a new class of macrocycle namely calix[3]acridan was conveniently synthesized in 90 % yield. The host-guest cocrystal formed by calix[3]acridan and 1,2-dicyanobenzene exhibited efficient TADF properties due to intense intermolecular charge transfer interactions. Moreover, the spatially separated highest occupied molecular orbital and lowest unoccupied molecular orbital resulted in a very small singlet-triplet energy gap of 0.014 eV and hence guaranteed an efficient reverse intersystem crossing for TADF. Especially, a high photoluminescence quantum yield of 70 % was achieved, and it represents the highest value among the reported intermolecular donor-acceptor TADF materials.

Structure-Activity Relationship of the Thiacalix[4]arenes Family with Sulfobetaine Fragments: Self-Assembly and Cytotoxic Effect against Cancer Cell Lines

Regulating the structure of macrocyclic host molecules and supramolecular assemblies is crucial because the structure-activity relationship often plays a role in governing the properties of these systems. Herein, we propose and develop an approach to the synthesis of the family of sulfobetaine functionalized thiacalix[4]arenes with regulation of the self-assembly and cytotoxic effect against cancer cell lines. The dynamic light scattering method showed that the synthesized macrocycles in cone, partial cone and 1,3-alternate conformations form submicron-sized particles with Ag⁺ in water, but the particle size and polydispersity of the systems studied depend on the macrocycle conformation. Based on the results obtained by ¹H and ¹H-¹H NOESY NMR spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy for the macrocycles and their aggregates with Ag⁺, a coordination scheme for the Ag⁺ and different conformations of p-tert-butylthiacalix[4]arene functionalized with sulfobetaine fragments was proposed. The type of coordination determines the different shapes of the associates. Cytotoxic properties are shown to be controlled by the shape of associates, with the highest activity demonstrated by thiacalix[4]arenes in partial cone conformation. This complex partial cone/Ag⁺ is two times higher than the reference drug imatinib mesylate. High selectivity against cervical carcinoma cell line indicates the prospect of their using as components of new anticancer system.

Theoretical Study of Macrocyclic Host Molecules: From Supramolecular Recognition to Self-Assembly

Supramolecular chemistry focuses on molecular recognition and self-assembly of various building blocks through weak non-covalent interactions, including anion-π, hydrogen bond (HB), hydrophobic interactions, van der Waals (vdW) interactions, etc, which...

Two Giant Calixarene-Like Polyoxoniobate Nanocups {Cu12 Nb120 } and {Cd16 Nb128 } Built from Mixed Macrocyclic Cluster Motifs

Cup-shaped molecules are of great interest due to their appealing architectures and properties. Compared with widely studied calixarenes, polyoxometalate-based cup-shaped molecules currently remain a virgin land waiting for exploration. In this work, we report the first discovery of two giant cup-shaped inorganic-organic hybrid polyoxoniobates (PONbs) of {Cu₁₂ Nb₁₂₀ } and {Cd₁₆ Nb₁₂₈ }. The former integrates three tricyclic Nb₂₄ clusters and a hexacyclic Nb₄₈ cluster into a cup-shaped molecule via a Cu₁₂ metallacalixarene, while the latter unifies two tricyclic Nb₂₄ clusters and a brand-new pentacyclic Nb₄₀ cluster into another cup-shaped molecule via a hybrid Cd₁₆ unit. With 132 and 144 metal centers, {Cu₁₂ Nb₁₂₀ } and {Cd₁₆ Nb₁₂₈ } show the largest two inorganic-organic hybrid PONbs known to date.

PAMAM-calix-dendrimers: Synthesis and Thiacalixarene Conformation Effect on DNA Binding

A convenient method for the synthesis of the first generation PAMAM dendrimers based on the thiacalix[4]arene has been developed for the first time. Three new PAMAM-calix-dendrimers with the macrocyclic core in cone, partial cone, and 1,3-alternate conformations were obtained with high yields. The interaction of the obtained compounds with salmon sperm DNA resulted in the formation of the associates of the size up to 200 nm, as shown by the UV-Vis spectroscopy, DLS, and TEM. It was demonstrated by the CD method that the structure of the DNA did not undergo significant changes upon binding. The PAMAM-calix-dendrimer based on the macrocycle in cone conformation stabilized DNA and prevented its degradation.

Nucleophile-induced transformation of phenoxathiin-based thiacalixarenes

Oxidized phenoxathiin-based macrocycles, easily accessible thiacalix[4]arene derivatives, consist of a unique set of structural elements representing a key prerequisite for the unexpected reactivity described in this paper. As proposed, the internal strain, imposed by the presence of a heterocyclic moiety, together with a number of electron-withdrawing groups (SO₂) opens the way to the cleavage of the macrocyclic skeleton through a cascade of three S_NAr reactions triggered by the nucleophilic attack of an SH^- anion. The whole transformation, which is unparalleled in classical calixarene chemistry, leads to unique linear sulfinic acid derivatives with a rearranged phenoxathiin moiety that can serve as building blocks for macrocyclic systems of a new type.

Synthesis of Azacalixarenes and Development of Their Properties

This review focuses on the synthesis, structure, and interactions of metal ions, the detection of some weak interactions using the structure, and the construction of supramolecules of azacalixarenes that have been reported to date. Azacalixarenes are characterized by the presence of shallow or deep cavities, the simultaneous presence of a basic nitrogen atom and an acidic phenolic hydroxyl group, and the ability to introduce various side chains into the cyclic skeleton. These molecules can be given many functions by substituting groups on the benzene ring, modifying phenolic hydroxyl groups, and converting side chains. The author discusses the evidence of azacalixarene utilizing these characteristics.

Chemistry of 2,14-Dithiacalix[4]arene: Searching for the Missing Fifth Conformer

Contrary to theoretical predictions, direct alkylation of 2,14-dithiacalix[4]arene provides only four out of five basic conformers (atropisomers). To prepare the missing 1,2 (C)-alternate conformer, the indirect alkylation strategy was applied using 1,3-dichloro-1,1,3,3-tetraisopropyldisiloxane as a protective agent. As proved by the combination of NMR and X-ray crystallography, the position of the disiloxane bridge on the macrocycle is not fixed and can be changed under basic conditions, representing thus so far unknown rearrangement of the siloxane moiety. The subsequent dialkylation/deprotection and dialkylation enabled the synthesis of the last missing conformer. As demonstrated by several examples, the mixed-bridge macrocycle (with both CH₂ and S bridging units) enables preparation of unusual conformers or substitution patterns, which are difficult to obtain, if at all, in classical calixarene chemistry. This feature makes 2,14-dithiacalix[4]arene a very promising candidate for the role of molecular scaffold or platform in various supramolecular applications.

Titanium complexes bearing oxa- and azacalix[4, 6]arenes: structural studies and use in the ring opening homo-/co-polymerization of cyclic esters

Reaction of excess [Ti(OiPr)₄] with p-tert-butyltetrahomodioxacalix[6]areneH₆ (L¹H₆) afforded, after work-up (MeCN), the complex [Ti₂(OiPr)₂(MeCN)L¹]·3.5MeCN (1·3.5MeCN), whilst the oxo complex [Ti₄(μ₃-O)₂(H₂O)(L¹)₂]·MeCN (2·MeCN) was isolated via a fortuitous synthesis involving the use of two equivalents of [Ti(OiPr)₄]. Reactions of p-methyl-dimethyldiazacalix[6]areneH₆ (L²H₆) with [TiF₄] (four equivalents), [TiCl₄(THF)₂] (two equivalents) or [TiBr₄] (>four equivalents) resulted in the titanium-based azacalix[n]arene complexes [Ti₄F₁₄L²H₂(H)₂]·2.5MeCN (3·2.5MeCN), [Ti₂X₄(H₂O)₂OL²H₂(H)₂] (X = Cl (4·5MeCN), Br (5·4.5MeCN) and [Ti₄Br₁₂L²(H)₂(MeCN)₆]·7MeCN (6·7MeCN), respectively. Reaction of four equivalents of [TiF₄] with L³H₄ (L³H₄ = p-methyl-dimethyldiazacalix[4]areneH₄) afforded the product [Ti₂F₂(μ-F)₃L³(H)₂(SiF₅)]·2MeCN (7·2MeCN). These complexes have been screened for their potential to act as pre-catalysts in the ring opening polymerization (ROP) of ε-caprolactone (ε-CL), δ-valerolactone (δ-VL) and rac-lactide (r-LA). Generally, the titanium complexes bearing oxacalixarene exhibited better activities than the azacalixarene-based pre-catalysts. For ε-CL, δ-VL and r-LA, moderate activity at 130 °C over 24 h was observed for 1-6. In the case of the co-polymerization of ε-CL with r-LA, 1-6 afforded reasonable conversions and high molecular weight polymers; 7 exhibited lower catalytic performance due to low solubility. None of the complexes proved to be active in the polymerization of ω-pentadecalactone (ω-PDL) under the conditions employed herein.

Thiacalix[4]arene-supported molecular clusters for catalytic applications

Thiacalixarenes are intriguing ligands that have attracted sustained interest because of their changeable conformations and excellent coordination ability. Thiacalix[4]arene analogues, which can bind metal ions to form modular second building units, are capable of constructing molecular-based functional materials with defined structures and various applications via directional coordination assembly. Due to rich metal-sulfur bonds, thiacalix[4]arene-based molecular clusters also exhibit diverse properties compared to other clusters. In particular, the combination of thiacalixarenes with currently popular molecular architectures, such as high-nuclearity clusters and coordination cages, has shown special catalytic performances. In this perspective, the latest advances in catalytic applications of thiacalix[4]arene-based molecular clusters, including molecular clusters themselves as catalysts and coordination cages serving as reaction vessels encapsulating metal nano-components for catalysis, are highlighted.

Gas Storage in Porous Molecular Materials

Molecules with permanent porosity in the solid state have been studied for decades. Porosity in these systems is governed by intrinsic pore space, as in cages or macrocycles, and extrinsic void space, created through loose, intermolecular solid-state packing. The development of permanently porous molecular materials, especially cages with organic or metal-organic composition, has seen increased interest over the past decade, and as such, incredibly high surface areas have been reported for these solids. Despite this, examples of these materials being explored for gas storage applications are relatively limited. This minireview outlines existing molecular systems that have been investigated for gas storage and highlights strategies that have been used to understand adsorption mechanisms in porous molecular materials.

Coordination-based self-assembled capsules (SACs) for protein, CRISPR-Cas9, DNA and RNA delivery

Biologics, such as functional proteins and nucleic acids, have recently dominated the drug market and comprise seven out of the top 10 best-selling drugs. Biologics are usually polar, heat sensitive, membrane impermeable and subject to enzymatic degradation and thus require systemic routes of administration and delivery. Coordination-based delivery vehicles, which include nanosized extended metal-organic frameworks (nMOFs) and discrete coordination cages, have gained a lot of attention because of their remarkable biocompatibility, in vivo stability, on-demand biodegradability, high encapsulation efficiency, easy surface modification and moderate synthetic conditions. Consequently, these systems have been extensively utilized as carriers of biomacromolecules for biomedical applications. This review summarizes the recent applications of nMOFs and coordination cages for protein, CRISPR-Cas9, DNA and RNA delivery. We also highlight the progress and challenges of coordination-based platforms as a promising approach towards clinical biomacromolecule delivery and discuss integral future research directions and applications.

Aryl carbazole-based macrocycles: synthesis, their remarkably stable radical cations and host–guest complexation with fullerenes

Herein, we have designed and synthesized a series of aryl carbazole-based macrocycles and their stable radical cation species and interesting fullerene recognition were systematically investigated.