Carrier-Based Ion-Selective Electrodes and Bulk Optodes. 2. Ionophores for Potentiometric and Optical Sensors

Comparative analysis of a bulk optode based on a valinomycin ionophore and a nano-optode in micelles with pluronic F-127 for the quantification of potassium in aqueous solutions

In this work, two types of optical sensors were prepared for the quantification of potassium: the bulk optode (BO) and nano-optode (NO). The BO was prepared using three main components: the ionophore valinomycin, the ion exchanger tetrakis(4-chlorophenyl) potassium borate (K-TCPB), and the chromoionophore ETH 5294 (CHI). The optimal composition was found to be in a ratio of [1 : 1 : 1]. The NO was prepared by miniaturizing the BO through sonication in surfactant Pluronic F-127. The working range for the linear calibration model of BO was from 10-6 to 1.0 M K+ with a LODBO = 0.31 μM, meanwhile for NO was from 10-4 to 1.0 M K+ with a LODNO = 30.3 μM. Both optodes were tested for selectivity towards K+ in the presence of alkaline and alkaline earth ions, with a selectivity coefficient > 1.0. Furthermore, precision and stability studies of BO and NO were performed for three levels of K+ concentrations, 10-6, 10-3, 1.0 M for BO and 10-4, 10-2, 1.0 M for NO, showing a good homogeneity of the NO in the whole concentration range. However, an excessive variability was obtained for BO at 1.0 M K+. Therefore, the NO represents a potential tool for quantification of K+.

Direct potentiometric bicarbonate/carbon dioxide sensing based on polymeric membranes doped with selective meso-bisubstituted calix[4]pyrrole ionophores

We evaluated in this work the properties of a promising class of HCO3- ionophores, which have not been recognized previously. Three types of neutral or charged calix[4]pyrroles with meso-bisubstituted groups were evaluated as ionophores for polymeric membrane HCO3- selective electrodes. Optimizing membrane components, such as ionophores, lipophilic additives and plasticizers, yielded ISEs exhibiting Nernstian response to HCO3- with improved linear range and detection limits, while the selectivity sequence differs significantly from the Hofmeister series. Interference from important biological and environmental species was reduced significantly, especially that from SCN-, NO3-, Br- and Cl-, which are always at high concentrations in related samples. In order to provide more insights into the properties of the ionophores and performance of the proposed ISEs, the stability constants of anion-ionophore complexes in the membrane phase were determined. Studies on the influence of the sample solution pH demonstrated that the proposed ISEs can be employed in a wide pH range of 3.0-9.0 with fast response (<30 s), good reversibility and long shelf life. Moreover, the proposed ISEs were used to quantify the concentration of HCO3- and dissolved CO2 in mineral and beverage samples with good recoveries.

Persistent Luminescence Nanosensors: A Generalized Optode-Based Platform for Autofluorescence-Free Sensing in Biological Systems

Fluorescent nanosensors have revolutionized diagnostics and our ability to monitor cellular dynamics. Yet, distinguishing sensor signals from autofluorescence remains a challenge. Here, we merged optode-based sensing with near-infrared-emitting ZnGa2O4:Cr3+ persistent luminescence nanoparticles (PLNPs) to create nanocomposites for autofluorescence-free "glow-in-the-dark" sensing. Hydrophobic modification and incorporation of the persistent luminescence nanoparticles into an optode-based nanoparticle core yielded persistent luminescence nanosensors (PLNs) for five analytes (K+, Na+, Ca2+, pH, and O2) via two distinct mechanisms. We demonstrated the viability of the PLNs by quantifying K+ in fetal bovine serum, calibrating the pH PLNs in the same, and ratiometrically monitoring O2 metabolism in cultures of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, all the while overcoming their respective autofluorescence signatures. This highly modular platform allows for facile tuning of the sensing functionality, optical properties, and surface chemistry and promises high signal-to-noise ratios in complex optical environments.

Polymeric membrane potentiometric sensors based on template-removal-free imprinted receptors for determination of antibiotics

Currently, Nernstian-response-based polymeric membrane potentiometric sensors using molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) as receptors have been successfully developed for determination of organic ionic species. However, the preparation of these MIP receptors usually involves tedious and time-consuming template-removal procedures. Herein, a template-removal-free MIP is proposed and used as a receptor for fabrication of a potentiometric sensor. The proposed methodology not only significantly shortens the preparation time of MIP-based potentiometric sensors but also improves the batch-to-batch reproducibility of these sensors. By using antibiotic vancomycin as a model, the new concept offers a linear concentration range of 1.0 × 10-7 to 1.0 × 10-4 mol L-1 with a detection limit of 2.51 × 10-8 mol L-1. It can be expected that the template-removal-free MIP-based sensing strategy could lay the foundation for simple fabrication of electrochemical sensors without the need for template removal such as potentiometric and capacitive sensors and ion-sensitive field-effect transistors.

Functionalizing Carbon Substrates with a Covalently Attached Cobalt Redox Buffer for Calibration-Free Solid-Contact Ion-Selective Electrodes

With a view to potentiometric sensing with minimal calibration requirements and high long-term stability, colloid-imprinted mesoporous (CIM) carbon was functionalized by the covalent attachment of a cobalt redox buffer and used as a new solid contact for ion-selective electrodes (ISEs). The CIM carbon surface was first modified by electroless grafting of a terpyridine ligand (Tpy-ph) using diazonium chemistry, followed by stepwise binding of Co(II) and an additional Tpy ligand to the grafted ligand, forming a bis(terpyridine) Co(II) complex, CIM-ph-Tpy-Co(II)-Tpy. Half a molar equivalent of ferrocenium tetrakis(3-chlorophenyl)borate was then used to partially oxidize the Co(II) complex. Electrodes prepared with this surface-attached CIM-ph-Tpy-Co(III/II)-Tpy redox buffer as a solid contact were tested as K+ sensors in combination with valinomycin as the ionophore and Dow 3140 silicone or plasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) as the matrixes for the ion-selective membrane (ISM). This solid contact is characterized by a redox capacitance of 3.26 F/g, ensuring a well-defined interfacial potential that underpins the transduction mechanism. By use of a redox couple as an internal reference element to control the phase boundary potential at the interface of the ISM and the CIM carbon solid contact, solid-contact ion-selective electrodes (SC-ISEs) with a standard deviation of E° as low as 0.3 mV for plasticized PVC ISMs and 3.5 mV for Dow 3140 silicone ISMs were obtained. Over 100 h, these SC-ISEs exhibit an emf drift of 20 μV/h for plasticized PVC ISMs and 62 μV/h for silicone ISMs. The differences in long-term stability and reproducibility between electrodes with ISMs comprising either a plasticized PVC or silicone matrix offer valuable insights into the effect of the polymeric matrix on sensor performance.

Probing Ion-Receptor Interactions in Halide Complexes of Octamethyl Calix[4]Pyrrole

Ion receptors are molecular hosts that bind ionic guests, often with great selectivity. The interplay of solvation and ion binding in anion host-guest complexes in solution governs the binding efficiency and selectivity of such ion receptors. To gain molecular-level insight into the intrinsic binding properties of octamethyl calix[4]pyrrole (omC4P) host molecules with halide guest ions, we performed cryogenic ion vibrational spectroscopy (CIVS) of omC4P in complexes with fluoride, chloride, and bromide ions. We interpret the spectra using density functional theory, describing the infrared spectra of these complexes with both harmonic and anharmonic second-order vibrational perturbation theory (VPT2) calculations. The NH stretching modes of the pyrrole moieties serve as sensitive probes of the ion binding properties, as their frequencies encode the ion-receptor interactions. While scaled harmonic spectra reproduce the experimental NH stretching modes of the chloride and bromide complexes in broad strokes, the high proton affinity of fluoride introduces strong anharmonic effects. As a result, the spectrum of F-·omC4P is not even qualitatively captured by harmonic calculations, but it is recovered very well by VPT2 calculations. In addition, the VPT2 calculations recover the intricate coupling of the NH stretching modes with overtones and combination bands of CH stretching and NH bending modes and with low-frequency vibrations of the omC4P macrocycle, which are apparent for all of the halide ion complexes investigated here. A comparison of the CIVS spectra with infrared spectra of solutions of the same ion-receptor complexes in d3-acetonitrile and d6-acetone shows how ion solvation changes the ion-receptor interactions for the different halide ions.

Increasing the Sensitivity of pH Glass Electrodes with Constant Potential Coulometry at Zero Current

It has recently become possible to increase the sensitivity of ion-selective electrodes (ISEs) by imposing a constant cell potential, allowing one to record current spikes with a capacitor placed in series in the circuit. The approach requires a transient current to pass through the measurement cell, which unfortunately may introduce measurement errors and additionally excludes the use of high-impedance indicator electrodes, such as pH glass electrodes. We present here an electronic circuit that overcomes these limitations, where the cell is measured at zero current in combination with a voltage follower, and the current spike and capacitor charging occur entirely within the instrument. The approach avoids the need for a counter electrode, and one may use any electrode useful in potentiometry regardless of its impedance. The characteristics of the circuit were found to approach ideality when evaluated with either an external potential source or an Ag/AgCl electrode. The current may be linearized and extrapolated to further reduce the measurement time. The circuit is further tested with the most common yet very challenging electrode, the pH glass electrode. A precision of 64 μpH was obtained for 0.01 pH change up to 0.05 from a reference solution. Similar pH changes were also measured reliably further away from the reference solution (0.5-0.55) and resulted in a precision of 377 μpH. The limitations of this experimental setup were explored by performing pH calibrations within the measuring range of the probe.

Improvement of the selectivity of a molecularly imprinted polymer-based potentiometric sensor by using a specific functional monomer

Potentiometric sensors based on the molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) as the receptors have been successfully developed for determination of various organic and biological species. However, these MIP receptors may suffer from problems of low selectivity. Especially, it would be difficult to distinguish the target analyte from its structurally similar interferents. In this work, we propose a novel strategy that using specific functional monomer to fabricate MIP with high selectivity towards the target molecule. The density functional theory calculations are used to investigate the interactions between the template and the functional monomer. The binding energy between the template and functional monomer can be used as the criterion for identifying the optimal monomer. As a proof-of-concept experiment, bisphenol A (BPA) is chosen as the template and the MIP is synthesized by the precipitation polymerization method using the specific allyl-β-cyclodextrin (allyl-β-CD) with high affinity towards BPA as the functional monomer. The high-affinity MIP is employed as the receptor for the construction of the potentiometric sensor. The proposed potentiometric sensor based on the MIP using allyl-β-CD as the functional monomer shows an improved response performance in terms of selectivity and sensitivity compared to the conventional potentiometric sensor based on the MIP with the common monomer (i.e., methacrylic acid). This allyl-β-CD MIP-based potentiometric sensor shows a detection limit of 0.29 μM for BPA, which is about one order of magnitude lower than that obtained by the conventional MIP-based potentiometric sensor. We believe that utilizing a functional monomer with specific recognition ability towards target in the fabrication of MIP could provide an appealing way to construct highly selective MIP-based electrochemical and optical sensors.

Nonequilibrium Anion Detection in Solid-Contact Ion-Selective Electrodes

Low-cost and portable nitrate and phosphate sensors are needed to improve farming efficiency and reduce environmental and economic impact arising from the release of these nutrients into waterways. Ion selective electrodes (ISEs) could provide a convenient platform for detecting nitrate and phosphate, but existing ionophore-based nitrate and phosphate selective membrane layers used in ISEs are high cost, and ISEs using these membrane layers suffer from long equilibration time, reference potential drift, and poor selectivity. In this work, we demonstrate that constant current operation overcomes these shortcomings for ionophore-based anion-selective ISEs through a qualitatively different response mechanism arising from differences in ion mobility rather than differences in ion binding thermodynamics. We develop a theoretical treatment of phase boundary potential and ion diffusion that allows for quantitative prediction of electrode response under applied current. We also demonstrate that under pulsed current operation, we can create functional solid-contact ISEs using lower-cost molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs). MIP-based nitrate sensors provide comparable selectivity against chloride to costlier ionophore-based sensors and exhibit >100,000 times higher selectivity against perchlorate. Likewise, MIP-based solid contact ion-selective electrode phosphate sensors operated under pulsed current provide competitive selectivity against chloride, nitrate, perchlorate, and carbonate anions. The theoretical treatment and conceptual demonstration of pulsed-current ISE operation we report will inform the development of new materials for membrane layers in ISEs based on differences in ion mobility and will allow for improved ISE sensor designs.

Transfer of Sodium Ion across Interface between Na+-Selective Electrode Membrane and Aqueous Electrolyte Solution: Can We Use Nernst Equation If Current Flows through Electrode?

Electrochemical impedance and chronopotentiometric measurements with Na+-selective solvent polymeric (PVC) membranes containing a neutral ionophore and a cation exchanger revealed low-frequency resistance, which is ascribed to Na+ ion transfer across the interface between the membrane and aqueous solution. The attribution is based on the observed regular dependence of this resistance on the concentration of Na+ in solutions. The respective values of the exchange current densities were found to be significantly larger than the currents flowing through ion-selective electrodes (ISEs) during an analysis in non-zero-current mode. This fact suggests that the interfacial electrochemical equilibrium is not violated by the current flow and implies that the Nernst equation can be applied to interpret the data obtained in non-zero-current mode, e.g., constant potential coulometry.

Ion-Selective Potentiometry with Plasma-Initiated Covalent Attachment of Sensing Membranes onto Inert Polymeric Substrates and Carbon Solid Contacts

The physical delamination of the sensing membrane from underlying electrode bodies and electron conductors limits sensor lifetimes and long-term monitoring with ion-selective electrodes (ISEs). To address this problem, we developed two plasma-initiated graft polymerization methods that attach ionophore-doped polymethacrylate sensing membranes covalently to high-surface-area carbons that serve as the conducting solid contact as well as to polypropylene, poly(ethylene-co-tetrafluoroethylene), and polyurethane as the inert polymeric electrode body materials. The first strategy consists of depositing the precursor solution for the preparation of the sensing membranes onto the platform substrates with the solid contact carbon, followed by exposure to an argon plasma, which results in surface-grafting of the in situ polymerized sensing membrane. Using the second strategy, the polymeric platform substrate is pretreated with argon plasma and subsequently exposed to ambient oxygen, forming hydroperoxide groups on the surface. Those functionalities are then used for the initiation of photoinitiated graft polymerization of the sensing membrane. Attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, water contact angle measurements, and delamination tests confirm the covalent attachment of the in situ polymerized sensing membranes onto the polymeric substrates. Using membrane precursor solutions comprising, in addition to decyl methacrylate and a cross-linker, also 2-(diisopropylamino)ethyl methacrylate as a covalently attachable H+ ionophore and tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate as ionic sites, both plasma-based fabrication methods produced electrodes that responded to pH in a Nernstian fashion, with the high selectivity expected for ionophore-based ISEs.

Water detection in organic solvents using a copolymer membrane immobilised with a fluorescent intramolecular charge transfer-type dye: effects of intramolecular hydrogen bonds

Numerous fluorescent dye-based optical sensors have been developed to detect water in organic solvents. However, only a few such sensors can detect water in polar solvents such as methanol or dimethyl sulfoxide, and their detection range is generally narrow. Therefore, in this study, a copolymer membrane incorporated with a pyridinium betaine dye (denoted PB1), which exhibited intramolecular charge transfer (ICT) characteristics, was developed to realise simple water detection in organic solvents. The pyridinium betaine structure, comprising intramolecular hydrogen bonds between the oxygen in the maleimide moiety and the hydrogen in the pyridinium, was vital for achieving efficient fluorescence emission. The membrane was prepared by copolymerising PB1 with the N,N-dimethyl acrylamide/acrylamide monomer on a glass plate, and the fluorescence in water-mixed organic solvents was investigated (λabs = 490 nm, λfl = 630 nm). The fluorescence intensity of the dye-immobilised membrane decreased with increasing water content of the organic solvents. The detection ranges in tetrahydrofuran, ethanol, methanol, and dimethyl sulfoxide were approximately <40, <40, <40, and <60 vol% water, respectively. In contrast, membranes based on a quaternary pyridinium dye (without intramolecular hydrogen bonds) did not detect water in methanol and dimethyl sulfoxide, although it was more sensitive than PB1 in the narrow region of low water concentration in THF. Theoretical calculations corroborated the importance of the pyridinium betaine structure in detecting water in organic solvents, with the increase in polarity and the formation of intermolecular hydrogen bonds between PB1 and water found to induce molecular rotation and fluorescence quenching.

Synthetic Modifications of a Pb2+-Sensor Acridono-Crown Ether for Covalent Attachment and Their Effects on Selectivity

Because of environmental impact, there is a great need for chemosensors, especially for toxic heavy metals such as lead. The conventional instrumental analytical techniques rarely provide an available real-time sensing platform, thus the development of highly selective and stable synthetic chemosensor molecules is of great importance. Acridono-18-crown-6 ethers have such properties, and much research has proven their outstanding applicability in various supramolecular devices. In this present work, we aimed to enable their covalent immobilization capability by synthesizing functionalized derivatives while preserving the favored molecular recognition ability. Several new macrocycle analogues were synthesized, while synthetization difficulties and design aspects were also dealt with. The selectivity of the macrocycle analogues was studied using UV-Vis spectroscopy and compared with that of the parent compounds. The ultimate crown ether derivative showed high Pb2+-selectivity, reversibility (decomplexation by extraction with water) and stability.

Fluorescent Eu-MOF@nanocellulose-based nanopaper for rapid and sensitive detection of uranium (Ⅵ)

Radioactive uranium leaks into natural water bodies mainly in the form of uranyl ions (UO22+), posing ecological and human health risks. Fluorescent europium-based metal-organic frameworks (Eu-MOFs) have been demonstrated to be effective fluorescent sensors for UO22+, but the large size, powder state and poor dispersity limit their further application. In this work, fluorescent Eu-MOFs were in-situ grown on TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibers (TOCNFs), which is the first time that spherical Eu-MOF crystals with sizes below 10 nm were prepared. Fluorescence spectral analysis revealed a nine-fold increase in the fluorescence intensity of TOCNF@Eu-MOF compared to Eu-MOF. The nanocomposites achieved rapid and sensitive fluorescence quenching to UO22+ through the "antenna effect" and unsaturated Lewis basic sites on the ligands binding with UO22+. Moreover, TOCNF@Eu-MOF demonstrated excellent selectivity and anti-interference for UO22+ detection. For the nanopaper-based sensor made from TOCNF@Eu-MOF, the Stern-Volmer quenching constant (KSV) was calculated as 8.21 × 104 M-1, and the lowest limit of detection (LOD) was 6.6 × 10-7 M, significantly lower than the 1.32 × 10-6 M of Eu-MOFs. In addition, the nanopaper exhibited good fluorescence stability and cyclic detection performance, enabling the rapid and convenient detection of UO22+ in the aqueous phase within 30 s by simple dipping.

Finite-element modeling of neuromodulation via controlled delivery of potassium ions using conductive polymer-coated microelectrodes

Objective. The controlled delivery of potassium is an interesting neuromodulation modality, being potassium ions involved in shaping neuron excitability, synaptic transmission, network synchronization, and playing a key role in pathological conditions like epilepsy and spreading depression. Despite many successful examples of pre-clinical devices able to influence the extracellular potassium concentration, computational frameworks capturing the corresponding impact on neuronal activity are still missing.Approach. We present a finite-element model describing a PEDOT:PSS-coated microelectrode (herein, simplyionic actuator) able to release potassium and thus modulate the activity of a cortical neuron in anin-vitro-like setting. The dynamics of ions in the ionic actuator, the neural membrane, and the cellular fluids are solved self-consistently.Main results. We showcase the capability of the model to describe on a physical basis the modulation of the intrinsic excitability of the cell and of the synaptic transmission following the electro-ionic stimulation produced by the actuator. We consider three case studies for the ionic actuator with different levels of selectivity to potassium: ideal selectivity, no selectivity, and selectivity achieved by embedding ionophores in the polymer.Significance. This work is the first step toward a comprehensive computational framework aimed to investigate novel neuromodulation devices targeting specific ionic species, as well as to optimize their design and performance, in terms of the induced modulation of neural activity.

Expanding the library of sumanene molecular receptors for caesium-selective potentiometric sensors

This paper reports the synthesis and characterization of eight sumanene molecular receptors for the selective recognition of caesium cations (Cs+). The sumanene derivatives differed in the number (from one to nine), type (electron donating or electron withdrawing) and method of the attachment (functionalization of sumanene at the benzylic or aromatic carbons) of substituents in the sumanene skeleton. The ultimate goal of this work was to investigate the prospective use of various sumanene derivatives in the design of Cs+-selective potentiometric sensors, thus, expanding the library of sumanene receptors for such applications. Spectroscopic fluorescence titration with caesium hexafluorophosphate revealed that the formation of sandwich complexes is highly favourable, but the steric hindrance of bulky substituents can disrupt this preference. In the case of triaryl-substituted sumanene derivatives, theoretical calculations show that, indeed, sandwich complexes are energetically more advantageous by 2.3 times than 1 : 1 complexes. Furthermore, such functionalization significantly increases receptor solubility in the polymeric membrane of the potentiometric sensors, which was quantitatively evaluated with the COSMO model.

Modern Potentiometric Biosensing Based on Non-Equilibrium Measurement Techniques

Modern potentiometric sensors based on polymeric membrane ion-selective electrodes (ISEs) have achieved new breakthroughs in sensitivity, selectivity, and stability and have extended applications in environmental surveillance, medical diagnostics, and industrial analysis. Moreover, nonclassical potentiometry shows promise for many applications and opens up new opportunities for potentiometric biosensing. Here, we aim to provide a concept to summarize advances over the past decade in the development of potentiometric biosensors with polymeric membrane ISEs. This Concept article articulates sensing mechanisms based on non-equilibrium measurement techniques. In particular, we emphasize new trends in potentiometric biosensing based on attractive dynamic approaches. Representative examples are selected to illustrate key applications under zero-current conditions and stimulus-controlled modes. More importantly, fruitful information obtained from non-equilibrium measurements with dynamic responses can be useful for artificial intelligence (AI). The combination of ISEs with advanced AI techniques for effective data processing is also discussed. We hope that this Concept will illustrate the great possibilities offered by non-equilibrium measurement techniques and AI in potentiometric biosensing and encourage further innovations in this exciting field.

Synthesis of Metabolites and Metabolite-like Compounds Using Biocatalytic Systems

Methodologies for the synthesis and purification of metabolites, which have been developed following their discovery, analysis, and structural identification, have been involved in numerous life science milestones. The renewed focus on the small molecule domain of biological cells has also created an increasing awareness of the rising gap between the metabolites identified and the metabolites which have been prepared as pure compounds. The design and engineering of resource-efficient and straightforward synthetic methodologies for the production of the diverse and numerous metabolites and metabolite-like compounds have attracted much interest. The variety of metabolic pathways in biological cells provides a wonderful blueprint for designing simplified and resource-efficient synthetic routes to desired metabolites. Therefore, biocatalytic systems have become key enabling tools for the synthesis of an increasing number of metabolites, which can then be utilized as standards, enzyme substrates, inhibitors, or other products, or for the discovery of novel biological functions.

Sensing and extraction of hazardous metals by di-phosphonates of heterocycles: a combined experimental and theoretical study

In this study, pyridine and phenanthroline diphosphonate ligands were investigated for the first time from the context of solvent extraction and potentiometric sensing of Co(II), Ni(II), Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II), and Pb(II) cations. The extraction efficiency under the same conditions for phenanthroline-diphosphonates is considerably higher than that for pyridine ligands. At the same time, the pyridine-diphosphonates show pronounced selectivity towards lead in this metal series. The extraction systems with phenanthroline diphosphonates provided the most efficient extraction of Cd(II) and Pb(II) cations (D > 90). The newly developed pyridine and phenanthroline diphosphonate ligands have proven to be highly effective components in plasticized polymeric membranes. These ligands can be utilized to construct potentiometric ion sensors that exhibit a notable response specifically towards Pb(II) cations. Among the previously reported tetradentate ligands, the phenanthroline diphosphonate ligand, when incorporated into plasticized polymeric membranes, demonstrated the highest sensitivity towards d-metals and Pb(II). The structure of the single crystal complex of Pb(II) and Cd(II) with pyridine-diphosphonates was studied by X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD). The geometry of Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) complexes and the energy effect of the complex formation, including pseudo-oligomerization reactions, were determined by DFT calculations. The high sensing and extraction efficiency of diphosphonates with respect to Pb(II) is consistent with the minimum values of complex formation energies. The variation in sensory and extraction properties observed among the studied diphosphonate ligands is influenced by the ability to form polynuclear complexes with Pb(II) cations, whereas such properties are absent in the case of Cd(II) cations.

Influence of the Composition of Plasticizer-Free Silicone-Based Ion-Selective Membranes on Signal Stability in Aqueous and Blood Plasma Samples

Solid-contact ion-selective electrodes (SC-ISEs) in direct long-term contact with physiological samples must be biocompatible and resistant to biofouling, but most wearable SC-ISEs proposed to date contain plasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) membranes, which have poor biocompatibility. Silicones are a promising alternative to plasticized PVC because of their excellent biocompatibility, but little work has been done to study the relationship between silicone composition and ISE performance. To address this, we prepared and tested K+ SC-ISEs with colloid-imprinted mesoporous (CIM) carbon as the solid contact and three different condensation-cured silicones: a custom silicone prepared in-house (Silicone 1), a commercial silicone (Dow 3140, Silicone 2), and a commercial fluorosilicone (Dow 730, Fluorosilicone 1). SC-ISEs prepared with each of these polymers and the ionophore valinomycin and added ionic sites exhibited Nernstian responses, excellent selectivities, and signal drifts as low as 3 μV/h in 1 mM KCl solution. All ISEs maintained Nernstian response slopes and had only very slightly worsened selectivities after 41 h exposure to porcine plasma (log KK,Na values of -4.56, -4.58, and -4.49, to -4.04, -4.00, and -3.90 for Silicone 1, Silicone 2, and Fluorosilicone 1, respectively), confirming that these sensors retain the high selectivity that makes them suitable for use in physiological samples. When immersed in porcine plasma, the SC-ISEs exhibited emf drifts that were still fairly low but notably larger than when measurements were performed in pure water. Interestingly, despite the very similar structures of these matrix polymers, SC-ISEs prepared with Silicone 2 showed lower drift in porcine blood plasma (-55 μV/h, over 41 h) compared to Silicone 1 (-495 μV/h) or Fluorosilicone 1 (-297 μV/h).

Nanoelectrochemistry at liquid/liquid interfaces for analytical, biological, and material applications

Herein, we feature our recent efforts toward the development and application of nanoelectrochemistry at liquid/liquid interfaces, which are also known as interfaces between two immiscible electrolyte solutions (ITIES). Nanopipets, nanopores, and nanoemulsions are developed to create the nanoscale ITIES for the quantitative electrochemical measurement of ion transfer, electron transfer, and molecular transport across the interface. The nanoscale ITIES serves as an electrochemical nanosensor to enable the selective detection of various ions and molecules as well as high-resolution chemical imaging based on scanning electrochemical microscopy. The powerful nanoelectroanalytical methods will be useful for biological and material applications as illustrated by in situ studies of solid-state nanopores, nuclear pore complexes, living bacteria, and advanced nanoemulsions. These studies provide unprecedented insights into the chemical reactivity of important biological and material systems even at the single nanostructure level.

A Screen-Printed Potentiometric Sensor for Stability Indicating Assay and Real-Time Monitoring of Trospium Chloride Dissolution Profile in its Pharmaceutical Dosage Form

According to FDA guidance, a biowaiver concept declares that dissolution testing could be approved as a replacement strategy for bioequivalence studies and/or in vivo bioavailability. From the analytical chemistry standpoint, the shift from the classically developed offline methods to the highly integrated miniaturized inline analyzers is one of the pioneering ways that would modernize future of in-vitro - in-vivo correlation (IVIVC). The emergence of screen-printed electrodes (SPE) is now making the move from successive sampling steps and off-line measurements to real-time and in-line monitoring. Recently, “SPE” potentiometric sensor was presented as real-time analyzer that can offer similar analytical results as separation-based chromatographic techniques. Thus, the main objective of this paper is to design a real-time SPE for in situ monitoring of the dissolution of trospium chloride (TRO) in neutral media. Validation of the proposed sensor was performed according to the IUPAC commendations. The measurements performed with this sensor showed an accuracy of average recovery 100.50% and standard deviation of less than 1.0%, also the repeatability and intermediate electrode variabilities were less than 1.0 and 1.3%, respectively. The developed sensor was successfully used for direct observation of the dissolution profile without any need for an extraction step or sample preparation.

A high-performance, all-solid-state Na+ selective sensor printed with eco-friendly conductive ink

In recent years, the integration of flexible printed electronics and electrochemical sensors has emerged as a new approach for developing wearable biochemical detecting devices. Among the materials utilized in flexible printed electronics, carbon-based conductive inks are considered to be crucial. In this study, we propose a cost-effective, highly conductive, and environmentally friendly ink formulation utilizing graphite and carbon black (CB) as conductive fillers, resulting in a very low sheet resistance of 15.99 Ω sq^-1 (conductivity of 2.5 × 10³ S m^-1) and a printed film thickness of 25 μm. The unique "sandwich" structure of the working electrode (WE) printed with this ink enhances its electrical conductivity, leading to high sensitivity, selectivity, and stability, with almost no water film generated between the WE and the ion-selective membrane (ISM), strong ion selectivity, long-term stability, and anti-interference. The lower detection limit of the sensor for Na⁺ is 0.16 mM with a slope of 75.72 mV per decade. To validate the sensor's usability, we analyzed three sweat samples collected during physical activity, with Na⁺ concentrations within the typical range for human sweat (51 ± 4 mM, 39 ± 5 mM, and 46 ± 2 mM).

FAST (Flexible Acetylcholine Sensing Thread): Real-Time Detection of Acetylcholine with a Flexible Solid-Contact Potentiometric Sensor

Acetylcholine (ACh) is involved in memory and learning and has implications in neurodegenerative diseases; it is therefore important to study the dynamics of ACh in the brain. This work creates a flexible solid-contact potentiometric sensor for in vitro and in vivo recording of ACh in the brain and tissue homogenate. We fabricate this sensor using a 250 μm diameter cotton yarn coated with a flexible conductive ink and an ACh sensing membrane that contains a calix[4]arene ionophore. The exposed ion-to-electron transducer was sealed with a 2.5 μm thick Parylene C coating to maintain the flexibility of the sensor. The resulting diameter of the flexible ACh sensing thread (FAST) was 400 μm. The FAST showed a linear response range from 1.0 μM to 10.0 mM in deionized water, with a near-Nernstian slope of 56.11 mV/decade and a limit of detection of 2.6 μM. In artificial cerebrospinal fluid, the limit of detection increased to 20 μM due to the background signal of ionic content of the cerebrospinal fluid. The FAST showed a signal stability of 226 μV/h over 24 h. We show that FAST can measure ACh dynamics in sheep brain tissue and sheep brain homogenate after ACh spiking. FAST is the first flexible electrochemical sensor for monitoring ACh dynamics in the brain.

Large-scale fabrication of ion-selective electrodes for simultaneous detection of Na+, K+, and Ca2+ in biofluids using a smartphone-based potentiometric sensing platform

A significant bottleneck exists for mass-production of ion-selective electrodes despite recent developments in manufacturing technologies. Here, we present a fully-automated system for large-scale production of ISEs. Three materials, including polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene terephthalate and polyimide, were used as substrates for fabricating ion-selective electrodes (ISEs) using stencil printing, screen-printing and laser engraving, respectively. We compared sensitivities of the ISEs to determine the best material for the fabrication process of the ISEs. The electrode surfaces were modified with various carbon nanomaterials including multi-walled carbon nanotubes, graphene, carbon black, and their mixed suspensions as the intermediate layer to enhance sensitivities of the electrodes. An automated 3D-printed robot was used for the drop-cast procedure during ISE fabrication to eliminate manual steps. The sensor array was optimized, and the detection limits were 10^-5 M, 10^-5 M and 10^-4 M for detection of K⁺, Na⁺ and Ca²⁺ ions, respectively. The sensor array integrated with a portable wireless potentiometer was used to detect K⁺, Na⁺ and Ca²⁺ in real urine and simulated sweat samples and results obtained were in agreement with ICP-OES with good recoveries. The developed sensing platform offers low-cost detection of electrolytes for point-of-care applications.

Hofmeister Effects Shine in Nanoscience

Hofmeister effects play a crucial role in nanoscience by affecting the physicochemical and biochemical processes. Thus far, numerous wonderful applications from various aspects of nanoscience have been developed based on the mechanism of Hofmeister effects, such as hydrogel/aerogel engineering, battery design, nanosynthesis, nanomotors, ion sensors, supramolecular chemistry, colloid and interface science, nanomedicine, and transport behaviors, etc. In this review, for the first time, the progress of applying Hofmeister effects is systematically introduced and summarized in nanoscience. It is aimed to provide a comprehensive guideline for future researchers to design more useful Hofmeister effects-based nanosystems.

Fast and sensitive coulometric signal transduction for ion-selective electrodes by utilizing a two-compartment cell

Here, we propose a fast and sensitive coulometric signal transduction method for ion-selective electrodes (ISEs) by utilizing a two-compartment cell. A potassium ion-selective electrode (K⁺-ISE) was connected as reference electrode (RE) and placed in the sample compartment. A glassy carbon (GC) electrode coated with poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (GC/PEDOT), or reduced graphene oxide (GC/RGO), was connected as working electrode (WE) and placed in the detection compartment together with a counter electrode (CE). The two compartments were connected with an Ag/AgCl wire. The measured cumulated charge was amplified by increasing the capacitance of the WE. The observed slope of the cumulated charge with respect to the change of the logarithm of the K⁺ ion activity was linearly proportional to the capacitance of the GC/PEDOT and GC/RGO, estimated from impedance spectra. Furthermore, the sensitivity of the coulometric signal transduction using a commercial K⁺-ISE with internal filling solution as RE and GC/RGO as WE allowed to decrease the response time while still being able to detect a 0.2% change in K⁺ concentration. The coulometric method utilizing a two-compartment cell was found to be feasible for the determination of K⁺ concentrations in serum. The advantage of this two-compartment approach, compared to the coulometric transduction described earlier, was that no current passed through the K⁺-ISE that was connected as RE. Therefore, current-induced polarization of the K⁺-ISE was avoided. Furthermore, since the GCE/PEDOT and GCE/RGO (used as WE) had a low impedance, the response time of the coulometric response decreased from minutes to seconds.

Detection of Interfering Ions Using Ion Flux Phenomena in Flow-Through Cl-ISEs with Ion Exchange Membranes

Ion-selective electrodes (ISEs) are among the most successful electrochemical sensors used in various applications because of their ability to measure electrolyte concentrations in liquids easily. It is common practice to suppress ion fluxes through the ion-sensitive membranes in ISEs because such fluxes worsen the lower limit of detection. In this study, we propose a method to detect interfering ions using this ion flux phenomenon. As a proof of principle, a flow-type Cl-ISE based on an ion exchange membrane loaded with the target ion chloride was used to acquire transient potential profiles during standstill after the introduction of liquids containing various ion species. When the target ion of the ion-sensitive membrane was measured, there was almost no change in potential over time. In contrast, when hydrophilic interfering ions were measured, the potential gradually decreased, and when hydrophobic interfering ions were measured, the potential gradually increased. The direction and intensity of these changes over time depended on the ion species and concentrations. The main reason for these potential changes is presumed to be the change in the local ionic composition of the sample near the sensing membrane due to ion exchange between the sample and membrane. This phenomenon could not be observed in a hydrophobic ion exchanger membrane doped with a quaternary ammonium salt and was characteristically observable using hydrophilic ion exchange membranes with a high charge density and a high ion diffusion rate. Finally, using a high-throughput flow-type system, we demonstrated the detection of interfering ions in solutions containing multiple ion species by using the ion flux phenomenon.

Nanoemulsion-based silver ion-selective optode based on colorimetrically silver ion-responsive ionic liquid-based dye

In this study, we describe the fast-responsive nanoemulsion (NE)-based silver ion (Ag⁺)-selective optode based on colorimetrically silver ion-responsive ionic liquid-based dye (ILD). The ILD comprises purely functional sensing molecules, a protonated cationic merocyanine dye (KD-M13-H⁺) and an anionic Ag⁺ ionophore (BDM-SO₃^-), and thus, it can be used for highly sensitive silver ion (Ag⁺) sensing due to the extremely high content of dye in the organic phase (ionic-liquid phase). However, during the Ag⁺ sensing, the cationic merocyanine dye is converted into electrically neutral form by deprotonation of the dye, which leads to the conversion of liquified dye into solid form in the organic phase, which makes the response time slower when ILD is used for poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) membrane-based ion-selective optode, especially for sensing of high Ag⁺ concentration. To solve this problem, we focused on the use of the nano-emulsification technique. The response time of the ILD-based nanoemulsion (NE) was considerably shorter (1 s) compared to that of the ILD-based PVC membrane (a few minutes) owing to the large surface area and excellent diffusivity of the emulsion. The ILD-based NE contained a very high dye concentration (833 mmol kg^-1) and exhibited approximately 12 times higher sensitivity than that of the plasticizer-based conventional NE. In the cation measurements, the ILD-based NE responded to Ag⁺ via a cation-exchange mechanism and demonstrated a highly selective response to Ag⁺ (log [Formula: see text] = - 3.0). ILD-NE was successfully applied to the detection of spiked Ag⁺ in a tap water sample with recoveries of 98 - 103% with a relative standard deviation (RSD) of less than 5%. In comparison with NE based on non-ionic ionophores without charge, NE based on BDM-SO₃^- responded to lower Ag⁺ concentrations owing to the effect of negative charge on the binding property. The novel ILD-based NE was capable of highly sensitive, rapid, and selective Ag⁺ sensing, providing potential for analytical devices applicable to high-performance on-site analysis.

Rapid and Accurate Measurement of the Na+/K+ Balance in Urine for Remote Patient Monitoring Using a Symmetric Electrode Architecture

The daily monitoring of the electrolyte balance in human bodies is challenging due to the lack of a low-cost, user-friendly device that can be used remotely by patients. In this study, a potentiometric sensor for the measurement of the ratio of Na⁺ and K⁺ ions has been fabricated using a solid-state carbon-based internal layer. PVC-type membranes are deposited using an autodispenser with a fabrication rate of approximately one sensor every 10 s, allowing mass production with limited investments. The symmetric architecture of the sensor unit, built without a reference electrode, permits a very fast stabilization of the signal, under 20 s, even without preconditioning. Measurements using buffer solutions in the range Na⁺/K⁺ = 1 to Na⁺/K⁺ = 10 indicate that less than 2 min, including the single-point calibration, is necessary to provide an estimation of the Na⁺/K⁺ balance with the same accuracy as that of a conventional sensing unit (±10%). Five sensors have been tested repeatedly over 30 days, and they maintained a constant level of performance regarding membrane sensitivity and response time. A remote measurement for the ratio between Na⁺ and K⁺ ions in urine samples showed results in agreement with a commercially available sensor. This sensor design could create new perspectives in remote healthcare for the quick detection of several diseases related to electrolyte balance.

An Accessible Yarn-Based Sensor for In-Field Detection of Succinylcholine Poisoning

Succinylcholine (SUX) is a clinical anesthetic that induces temporary paralysis and is degraded by endogenous enzymes within the body. In high doses and without respiratory support, it results in rapid and untraceable death by asphyxiation. A potentiometric thread-based method was developed for the in-field and rapid detection of SUX for forensic use. We fabricated the first solid-contact SUX ion-selective electrodes from cotton yarn, a carbon black ink, and a polymeric ion-selective membrane. The electrodes could selectively measure SUX in a linear range of 1 mM to 4.3 μM in urine, with a Nernstian slope of 27.6 mV/decade. Our compact and portable yarn-based SUX sensors achieved 94.1% recovery at low concentrations, demonstrating feasibility in real-world applications. While other challenges remain, the development of a thread-based ion-selective electrode for SUX detection shows that it is possible to detect this poison in urine and paves the way for other low-cost, rapid forensic diagnostic devices.

Novel solid-contact ion-selective electrode based on a polyaniline transducer layer for determination of alcaftadine in biological fluid

Fabrication of a novel ion selective electrode for determining alcaftadine was achieved. The glassy carbon electrode (GCE) was utilized as a substrate in fabrication of an electrochemical sensor containing polyaniline (PANI) as an ion-to-electron transducer layer. A PVC polymeric matrix and nitrophenyl-octyl-ether were employed in designing the ion-sensing membrane (ISM). Potential stability was improved and minimization of electrical signal drift was achieved for inhibition of water layer formation at the electrode interface. Potential stability was achieved by inclusion of PANI between the electronic substrate and the ion-sensing membrane. The sensor's performance was evaluated following IUPAC recommendations. The sensor dynamic linear range was from 1.0 × 10^-2 to 1.0 × 10^-6 mol L^-1 and it had a 6.3 × 10^-7 mol L^-1 detection limit. The selectivity and capabilities of the formed alcaftadine sensor were tested in the presence of its pharmaceutical formulation excipients as well as its degradation products. Additionally, the sensor was capable of quantifying the studied drug in a rabbit aqueous humor. Method's greenness profile was evaluated by the means of Analytical Greenness (AGREE) metric assessment tool.

Flexible Sweat Sensors: From Films to Textiles

Flexible sweat sensors have found widespread potential applications for long-term wear and tracking and real-time monitoring of human health. However, the main substrate currently used in common flexible sweat sensors is thin film, which has disadvantages such as poor air permeability and the need for additional wearables. In this Review, the recent progress of sweat sensors has been systematically summarized by the types of monitoring methods of sweat sensors. In addition, this Review introduces and compares the performance of sweat sensors based on thin film and textile substrates such as fiber/yarn. Finally, opportunities and suggestions for the development of flexible sweat sensors are presented by summarizing the integration methods of sensors and human body monitoring sites.

Polylactide-Meso-Substituted Arylporphyrin Composites: Structure, Properties and Antibacterial Activity

The structural features and antibacterial properties of polymer-porphyrin composites were investigated. Meso-substituted arylporphyrin 0.2-0.5 wt.% was immobilized in a polylactide matrix. The immobilization of porphyrin causes a bathochromic shift and splitting of the Soret band. This study of the morphology of the obtained composites demonstrated a uniform distribution of the meso-substituted arylporphyrin in the polylactide matrix. It was determined by the X-ray diffraction analysis that porphyrin does not affect the α-form of polylactide crystalline formations. However, its addition into the polymer somewhat reduces the melting point (by 1-2 °C) and the degree of crystallinity of polylactide (by 3-4%). The elastic characteristics of the resulting systems were determined by the ultrasonic method, and a decrease in the density of the samples with an increase of the arylporphyrin content was shown. According to the results of the biological test, the dark toxicity of the obtained composites against the microorganisms Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella Typhimurium and Escherichia coli was shown. Immobilizates containing 0.4 and 0.5 wt.% porphyrin showed the best antibacterial effect. The antibacterial activity of the studied composites makes it possible to attribute the polylactide-porphyrin systems to promising materials in the field of medicine and bioengineering.

A sprayed graphene transistor platform for rapid and low-cost chemical sensing

We demonstrate a novel and versatile sensing platform, based on electrolyte-gated graphene field-effect transistors, for easy, low-cost and scalable production of chemical sensor test strips. The Lab-on-PCB platform is enabled by low-boiling, low-surface-tension sprayable graphene ink deposited on a substrate manufactured using a commercial printed circuit board process. We demonstrate the versatility of the platform by sensing pH and Na⁺ concentrations in an aqueous solution, achieving a sensitivity of 143 ± 4 μA per pH and 131 ± 5 μA per log₁₀Na⁺, respectively, in line with state-of-the-art graphene chemical sensing performance.

Home-Based Electrochemical Rapid Sensor (HERS): A Diagnostic Tool for Bacterial Vaginosis

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is the most frequently occurring vaginal infection worldwide, yet it remains significantly underdiagnosed as a majority of patients are asymptomatic. Untreated BV poses a serious threat as it increases one's risk of STI acquisition, pregnancy complications, and infertility. We aim to minimize these risks by creating a low-cost disposable sensor for at-home BV diagnosis. A clinical diagnosis of BV is most commonly made according to the Amsel criteria. In this method, a fish-like odor, caused by increased levels of trimethylamine (TMA) in vaginal fluid, is used as a key diagnostic. This paper outlines the development of a Home-Based Electrochemical Rapid Sensor (HERS), capable of detecting TMA in simulated vaginal fluid (sVF). Instead of odor-based detection of volatilized TMA, we identify TMA in trimethylammonium form by utilizing HERS and a potentiometric readout. We fabricated the ion selective electrode using a carbon-black-coated cotton string and a TMA-selective membrane consisting of calix[4]arene and sodium tetrakis[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]borate. When paired with a standard reference electrode, our device was able to quantify TMA concentration in deionized (DI) water, as well as sVF samples at multiple pH levels with a clinically relevant limit of detection (8.66 µM, and theoretically expected Nernstian slope of 55.14 mV/decade).

Novel (E)−2-((1-(thiophen-2-yl)ethylidene)-amino) phenol Manganese(II) as an Ionophore Based on Thiocyanate-Selective Electrodes and Its Applications

Novel highly selective potentiometric sensor based on aquadichloro(E)−2-((1-(thiophen-2-yl)ethylidene)-amino)phenol manganese(II)trihydrate as an anion carrier. The thiocayanate electrode displayed a very high selectivity compared with others inorganic anions. Different sensors with plasticized PVC membranes have been investigated. The sensors construction containing different amounts of ionophore with and without additives. The pH over 3.5–6.5 range has been studied. Optimized membrane electrode included 66 mg PVC, 132 mg o-nitrophenyloctylether, 10 mol % tetrakis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl borate and 2% [Mn(C12H11NOS)(Cl2)(H2O)]· 3H2O. The optimized sensors exhibit Nernstian response for thiocyanate through a linear concentration ranging from (5 × 10−8 to 9.06 × 10−1 M) with a detection limit of 3 × 10−8 M and a slope of −57.7 mV decade−1, the measurement carried out in acetate buffer pH 4.7. The response time of electrode <10 s and the lifetime of the sensor more than 6 weeks. The proposed electrode was effectively utilized to estimation of thiocyanate in saliva sample, the results revealed a valid agreement with reference colorimetric method.

Self-Powered Signal Transduction of Ion-Selective Electrodes to an Electronic Paper Display

Mobile integrated electrochemical sensors normally require a power supply for operation. Unfortunately, the practice of discarding batteries associated with these devices runs counter to our desire for a sustainable world. Self-powered sensing concepts that draw the energy directly from the measurement itself would overcome this limitation. Potentiometric sensors for the measurement of pH, many electrolytes, and gases are ubiquitous in analytical practice. However, in potentiometry, the voltage is acquired in the absence of current flow, making it seemingly impossible to draw power. Fortunately, it has been recently established that transient currents may be tolerated across potentiometric measurement cells to charge a capacitive or electrochromic element such as Prussian blue integrated in the measurement cell and whose absorbance then directly follows the potential changes in a reversible manner. We have shown here that commercial electronic paper (e-paper), widely used to make electronic ink and ebook readers, can directly be driven by a potentiometric measurement cell in a reversible manner at mild potentials of >100 mV typical for such sensors. The capacitance of the e-paper pixel studied here was found to be 0.53 μF mm^-2, 30 times smaller than that of Prussian blue films. The colorimetric absorbance of the e-paper was also more stable (observed drift over 2 h corresponding to 0.76 mV h^-1) and reproducible (corresponding to 1 mV standard deviation). The e-paper pixel was directly driven by a polymeric pH electrode as a model system. Choosing a basic inner solution (pH 12.9) behind the membrane gave sufficiently positive cell potentials for driving visible absorbance change in a sample pH range of 4-10, while a more acidic pH of 3.4 and alternating the connections to the e-paper were more suited for more basic samples of pH > 10. This convenient and cost-effective approach makes it possible to directly drive an optical display from the potentiometric measurement itself and should be suitable for moderate sensing membrane resistances of less than about 100 kΩ, depending on the area of the chosen pixel.

Response Mechanism of Hyperpolarization-Based Polyion Nanosensors

The last decade has witnessed a rapid development of nano- and microparticle-based optical ion sensors, including ion-selective optodes (ISOs). While the application of nano-ISOs has shown promising performance for sensing inorganic ions, polyion sensing using nanoscale ISOs has encountered significant interference in complex samples such as blood plasma. Recently, we have reported on a new polyion sensing principle that operates through a novel mechanism to overcome this challenge. The new sensing mechanism showed improved characteristics not observed with conventional ion-exchange type sensors, but the precise mechanism of operation remained thus far unclear. This paper aims to clarify how protamine, the arginine-rich target polycation, behaves during optical signal transduction to give dramatically improved selectivity. Based on thermodynamic data, sensor performance and ζ-potential analysis, two discrete phases of protamine extraction are identified. Initially, protamine extracts into the bulk nanosensor phase, a process that is concurrent with the optical signal change. This is then followed by protamine accumulation onto the nanosensor surface, which starts only upon saturation of the optical signal change. The data indicate that the improved selectivity is due to the inability of small ions to form a sufficiently strong interaction with an active sensing ingredient, DNNS^-. Any exchange of one inorganic cation for another therefore remains optically silent, suppressing matrix effects. Moreover, the recognition of protamine is shown to be an exhaustive extraction process, making the response independent of the nature and concentration of the initial small cation in the nanosensor phase.

Voltammetric Ion Sensing with Ionophore-Based Ion-Selective Electrodes Containing Internal Aqueous Solution, Improving Lifetime of Sensors

The possibility of voltammetric ion sensing is demonstrated, for the first time, for ion-selective electrodes (ISEs) containing an internal aqueous solution. ISEs selective to calcium, lithium and potassium ions are used as model systems. The internal solution of the ISEs contains a chloride salt of the respective cation and a ferrocenemethanol or ferrocyanide/ferricyanide redox couple. A platinum wire is used as the internal reference electrode. It is shown, theoretically and experimentally, that the dependence of oxidation and reduction peak potentials on the sample composition obeys the Nernst law, while the peak currents virtually do not depend on the sample composition. Thus, the electrode behavior is similar to that reported by Bakker's group for solid contact ISEs with ultra-thin membranes (200-300 nm). It is shown that the use of classical ISEs with relatively thick membranes (100-300 µm) and internal aqueous solution allows for the sensor lifetime of about one month. It is also shown that use of a suitable background electrolyte allows for improvement of the detection limits in voltammetric measurements with ISEs.

Optimization of Castor Oil-Based Ion Selective Electrode (ISE) with Active Agent 1,10-Phenanthroline for Aqueous Pb2+ Analysis

This research has successfully fabricated ion selective electrode (ISE) for Pb2+ using castor oil (Ricinus communis L.)-based polyurethane (PU) membrane with 1,10-phenanthroline as the active agent. The sensitivity of the Pb2+ ISE obtained is 27.25 mV/decade with a linear range of [Pb(NO3)2] of 10−10−10−5 M and a coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.959. The system response reaches stability after 25 s of measurement. The Pb2+ has a detection limit of 10−10 M and gives a stable response at pH 7−8 with a 15-day lifetime. The investigation of the selectivity of the ISE was performed using the mixed solution method with log Kij values of <1. The selectivity order of Pb2+ ISE against the foreign ions is Ag2+ > Ca2+ > K+ > Mg2+ > Cu2+ > Fe3+ > Cr3+> Zn2+ > Cd2+. The Pb2+ ISE shows acceptable reproducibility and repeatability with standard deviation values of 0.065 and 0.0079, respectively. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectra confirmed that 1,10-phenanthroline was responsible for the formation of the Pb2+ ion entrapment via complexation. Other characterizations (crystallinity, micro-surface morphology, and mechanical strength) suggest the degradation of the membrane structure integrity after the application. The analysis results of Pb levels using the Pb2+ ISE in artificial and wastewater samples were not significantly different from the atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) measurement.

Evaluation of mesoporous borosilicate glass-ceramic composites as frits in reference electrodes

The development of new mesoporous frits for reference electrodes to overcome the limitations of cross-contamination and screening effect is essential for many electrochemical measurements. Available frit-based reference electrodes (e.g., mesoporous, microporous) still suffer from cross-contamination and/or errors in electrochemical measurements. In this work, a mesoporous glass-ceramic composite is prepared to mitigate such limitations. Mesoporous glass-ceramic frits were prepared from low-cost materials (i.e., borosilicate and kaolin) at relatively low temperatures (750-850 °C). The prepared glass-ceramic frits were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), impedance measurements, and nitrogen sorption isotherms. The developed mesoporous glass-ceramic composites are characterized by a high chemical resistance against corrosive materials and a low thermal expansion. Reference electrodes constructed with the developed mesoporous glass-ceramic frits exhibited a low flow rate of 0.002 ± 0.001 to 0.41 ± 0.06 μL h^-1 and high potential stability as well as very small potential drift of -2.4 ± 0.2 to -4.9 ± 0.2 μV h^-1. Mesoporous glass-ceramic based reference electrodes exhibited average potential variations of 13 ± 3 mV over the concentration range of 1 mM to 0.1 M KCl. This indicates that mesoporous glass-ceramic frit-based reference electrodes exhibited a much lower flow rate compared to available microporous frit-based reference electrodes. Moreover, the developed mesoporous ceramic-based reference electrodes exhibited a 4-15-fold improvement in potential variations and a large improvement in potential stability in comparison with the reported mesoporous-frit-based reference electrodes.

Specific Binding of Primary Ammoniums in Aqueous Media by Homooxacalixarenes Incorporated into Micelles

The development of artificial receptors for efficient recognition of analytes in water is a challenging task. Homooxacalix[3]arene-based receptor 1, which is selective toward primary ammoniums in organic solvents, was transferred into water following two different strategies: direct solubilization and micellar incorporation. Extensive ¹H NMR studies showed that recognition of ammoniums is only observed in the case of micellar incorporation, highlighting the beneficial effect of the microenvironment of the micellar core. The selectivity of the system for primary ammoniums over secondary and tertiary ones was also maintained. The hydrophobic effect plays an important role in the recognition properties, which are counterion-dependent due to the energy penalty for the dissociation of certain ammonium salts in the apolar micellar core. This study shows that the straightforward self-assembly process used for the encapsulation of artificial receptors in micelles is an efficient strategy for developing water-soluble nanosized supramolecular recognition systems.

Non-Enzymatic Phenylboronic Acid-Based Optode Membrane for Glucose Monitoring in Serums of Diabetic Patients and in the Culture Medium of Human Embryos

Monitoring glucose levels is important not only for diabetics, but also for tracking embryonic development in human embryo culture media. In this study, an optochemical sensor (glucose-selective polymer membrane) was fabricated for the determination of glucose in serum from diabetic patients and the culture media of human embryos. The optode membranes were formulated using polyvinyl chloride (PVC) as the polymer matrix and 4',5'-dibromofluorescein octadecyl ester (ETH 7075) as the chromoionophore. The sensitivity of the optode membranes was optimized using two different plasticizers (tricresyl phosphate-TCP and nitrophenyloctyl ether-NOPE) and three ionophores (nitrophenylboronic acid-NPBA, trifluorophenyboronic acid-TFPBA, 4'-nitrobenzo-15-crown-5) and tested for glucose detection. The best optode membrane was formulated from 49.5% PVC, 49.5% TCP, 1% NPBA, and 1% ETH 7075. It showed a linear dynamic range of 10^-3 M to 10^-1 M, with a detection limit of 9 × 10^-4 M and a response time of 2 min. The detection mechanism involves H-bonding between NPBA and glucose, which was confirmed by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The reaction also involves the formation of boronate esters in basic media with deprotonation of the chromoionophore (ETH 7075), leading to a decrease in UV-Vis absorbance at λmax = 530 nm. The membrane optode was used for glucose determination in synthetic culture medium, commercial embryo culture medium (GLOBAL^® TOTAL^® W/HEPES), and serum from normal and diabetic patients, showing good accuracy and precision of the optode.

Polymeric Membrane Marine Sensors with a Regenerable Antibiofouling Coating Based on Surface Modification of a Dual-Functionalized Magnetic Composite

Environmentally compatible polymeric membrane marine sensors with excellent antiadhesive and antibacterial properties have recently been developed. However, the regeneration abilities of these sensors after fouling have rarely been investigated. Herein, a novel strategy for preparation of a regenerable antibiofouling coating via surface modification of a dual-functionalized magnetic composite is proposed. A zwitterionic polymer (i.e., poly(sulfobetaine methacrylate)) and a quaternary ammonium compound (i.e., 3-trimethoxysilylpropyl octadecyldimethyl ammonium chloride) are coated on the surface of Fe₃O₄ microspheres for antiadhesion and bacterial inactivation, respectively. The antifouling magnetic composite can readily be modified on the sensor's surface via the magnetically assisted self-assembly technology. Using a polymeric membrane calcium ion-selective electrode as a model sensor, the protection layer-coated electrode shows the markedly improved antibiofouling activities as compared to the unmodified sensor. More importantly, by altering the direction of the external magnetic field, the antifouling coating can easily be removed after fouling along with the removal of the adsorbed bacterial cells from the electrode's surface, which is followed by re-modifying a fresh coating for regeneration of the antifouling electrode. The proposed methodology for fabrication of a regenerable antibiofouling coating is promising to improve the durability of a marine sensor.

Crystal structure of the complex of 2,4,6-tri-ethyl-1,3,5-tris-[(4-methyl-1H-indazol-1-yl)meth-yl]-benzene with NH4PF6

The complex of 2,4,6-tri-ethyl-1,3,5-tris-[(4-methyl-1H-indazol-1-yl)meth-yl]-benz-ene with ammonium hexa-fluorophosphate, C₃₉H₄₂N₆·NH₄ ⁺·PF₆ ^-, crystallizes in the monoclinic space group P2₁ with two mol-ecules of the receptor, two NH₄ ⁺ and two PF₆ ^- ions in the asymmetric unit. In each of the complexes the ammonium ion resides in the cavity of the receptor mol-ecule and is fixed in its position by three N-H⋯N bonds, while the remaining hydrogen atom of the cation acts as a bifurcated binding site for N-H⋯F bonding to the counter-anion. The crystal is composed of one-dimensional supra-molecular aggregates extending along the a-axis direction.

Graphene-Based Ion-Selective Field-Effect Transistor for Sodium Sensing

Field-effect transistors have attracted significant attention in chemical sensing and clinical diagnosis, due to their high sensitivity and label-free operation. Through a scalable photolithographic process in this study, we fabricated graphene-based ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET) arrays that can continuously monitor sodium ions in real-time. As the sodium ion concentration increased, the current–gate voltage characteristic curves shifted towards the negative direction, showing that sodium ions were captured and could be detected over a wide concentration range, from 10⁻⁸ to 10⁻¹ M, with a sensitivity of 152.4 mV/dec. Time-dependent measurements and interfering experiments were conducted to validate the real-time measurements and the highly specific detection capability of our sensor. Our graphene ISFETs (G-ISFET) not only showed a fast response, but also exhibited remarkable selectivity against interference ions, including Ca²⁺, K⁺, Mg²⁺ and NH₄⁺. The scalability, high sensitivity and selectivity synergistically make our G-ISFET a promising platform for sodium sensing in health monitoring.