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Sun Y, Yao B, Ma M, Hu X, Ji M, Fang X. Emissions of HCFC-22 and HCFC-142b in China during 2018-2021 Inferred from Inverse Modeling. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024. [PMID: 39034468 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.4c02169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/23/2024]
Abstract
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are transitional substitutes for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). However, they still have the capacity to be ozone-depleting substances (ODSs). Therefore, they are scheduled to be phased out in China by 2030 under the Montreal Protocol. The emission estimates of HCFC-22 (CHClF2) and HCFC-142b (CH3CClF2) in China using atmospheric observations are lacking after 2017, making it hard to understand the effectiveness of the phase-out process of HCFCs in China. Here, we use flask and in situ measurements of HCFC-22 and HCFC-142b during 2018-2021 and inverse modeling to determine the emission magnitude and changes in China. It was determined that China's emissions were 172 ± 40, 154 ± 39, 160 ± 22, and 155 ± 33 Gg yr-1 of HCFC-22 and 8.3 ± 1.8, 7.8 ± 1.6, 7.4 ± 1.7, and 7.9 ± 1.7 Gg yr-1 of HCFC-142b from 2018 to 2021, respectively. Top-down estimates show that HCFC-22 emissions in China were stable, while HCFC-142b emissions were decreasing during 2013-2021, although both substances were in the stage of being phased out during 2013-2021. This study reveals that 46 and 39% of the global HCFC-22 and HCFC-142b emissions, respectively, cannot be traced to certain countries in 2020. We suggest that more studies on HCFC emissions around the world in the future are needed to better safeguard the ozone layer recovery and climate mitigation by ensuring compliance with the Montreal Protocol during HCFC phase-out processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yahui Sun
- College of Environmental & Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| | - Bo Yao
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences & Institute of Atmospheric Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, P. R. China
- Meteorological Observation Centre of China Meteorological Administration (MOC/CMA), Beijing 100081, P. R. China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Boundary Dynamics and Climate Change, Shanghai 200438, P. R. China
| | - Mengyue Ma
- College of Environmental & Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| | - Xiaoyi Hu
- College of Environmental & Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| | - Mingrui Ji
- College of Environmental & Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| | - Xuekun Fang
- College of Environmental & Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, P. R. China
- Center for Global Change Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, P. R. China
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Flerlage H, Velders GJM, de Boer J. A review of bottom-up and top-down emission estimates of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) in different parts of the world. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 283:131208. [PMID: 34153914 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Revised: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are widespread alternatives for the ozone-depleting substances chlorofluorocarbons and hydrochlorofluorocarbons. They are used mainly as refrigerants or as foam-blowing agents. HFCs do not deplete the ozone layer, but they are very potent greenhouse gases, already contributing to global warming. Since 2019 HFCs are regulated under the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol, which demands reliable emission estimates to monitor the phase-down. Quantification of emissions is performed with two methods: bottom-up from product inventories or data on chemical sales; or top-down, inferred from atmospheric measurements by inverse modelling or interspecies correlation. Here, we review and compare the two methods and give an overview of HFC emissions from different parts of the world. Emission estimates reported by the different methods vary considerably. HFC emissions of developed countries (Annex I) are reported to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. These bottom-up estimates add up to only half of global emissions estimated from atmospheric data. Several studies with regional top-down estimates have shown that this gap is not owed to large-scale underreporting of emissions from developed countries, but mostly due to emissions from developing countries (non-Annex I). China accounts for a large fraction of the emissions causing the gap, but not entirely. Bottom-up and top-down estimations of emissions from other developing countries that could identify other large emitters are largely unavailable. Especially South America, West-, Central- and East-Africa, India, the Arabian Peninsula and Northern Australia are not well covered by measurement stations that could provide atmospheric data for top-down estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Flerlage
- Vrije Universiteit, Department of Environment and Health, Faculty of Sciences, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Guus J M Velders
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands; Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research Utrecht (IMAU), Utrecht University, the Netherlands
| | - Jacob de Boer
- Vrije Universiteit, Department of Environment and Health, Faculty of Sciences, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Perugini L, Pellis G, Grassi G, Ciais P, Dolman H, House JI, Peters GP, Smith P, Günther D, Peylin P. Emerging reporting and verification needs under the Paris Agreement: How can the research community effectively contribute? ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & POLICY 2021; 122:116-126. [PMID: 34345221 PMCID: PMC8171125 DOI: 10.1016/j.envsci.2021.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2020] [Revised: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emission inventories represent the link between national and international political actions on climate change, and climate and environmental sciences. Inventory agencies need to include, in national GHG inventories, emission and removal estimates based on scientific data following specific reporting guidance under the United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement, using the methodologies defined in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Guidelines. Often however, research communities and inventory agencies have approached the problem of climate change from different angles and by using terminologies, metrics, rules and approaches that do not always match. This is particularly true dealing with "Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry" (LULUCF), the most challenging among the inventory sectors to deal with, mainly because of high level of complexity of its carbon dynamics and the difficulties in disaggregating the fluxes between those caused by natural and anthropogenic processes. In this paper, we facilitate the understanding by research communities of the current (UNFCCC) and future (under the Paris Agreement) reporting requirements, and we identify the main issues and topics that should be considered when targeting improvement of the GHG inventory. In relation to these topics, we describe where and how the research community can contribute to producing useful inputs, data, methods and solutions for inventory agencies and policy makers, on the basis of available literature. However, a greater effort by both communities is desirable for closer cooperation and collaboration, for data sharing and the understanding of respective and common aims.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Perugini
- Foundation Euro-Mediterranean Center on Climate Change (CMCC), Division on Climate Change Impacts on Agriculture, Forests and Ecosystem Services (IAFES), Viale Trieste n. 127, 01100, Viterbo, Italy
| | - Guido Pellis
- Foundation Euro-Mediterranean Center on Climate Change (CMCC), Division on Climate Change Impacts on Agriculture, Forests and Ecosystem Services (IAFES), Viale Trieste n. 127, 01100, Viterbo, Italy
| | - Giacomo Grassi
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Directorate for Sustainable Resources, Via Enrico Fermi n. 2749, 21027, Ispra, VA, Italy
| | - Philippe Ciais
- Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement, (LSCE) CEA CNRS UVSQ UPSACLAY, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Han Dolman
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science, Boelelaan 1085, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Joanna I. House
- University of Bristol, School of Geographical Science, University Road, BS8 1SS, Bristol, UK
| | - Glen P. Peters
- CICERO Center of International Climate Research, Pb. 1129 Blindern, 0318, Oslo, Norway
| | - Pete Smith
- University of Aberdeen, Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, 23 St Machar Drive, AB24 3UU, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Dirk Günther
- Umweltbundesamt / German Environment Agency, Postfach 1406, 06813, Dessau-Roßlau, Germany
| | - Philippe Peylin
- Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement, (LSCE) CEA CNRS UVSQ UPSACLAY, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
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Sarkar S, Fan WH, Jia S, Blake DR, Reid JS, Lestari P, Yu LE. A quantitative assessment of distributions and sources of tropospheric halocarbons measured in Singapore. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 619-620:528-544. [PMID: 29156272 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.11.087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2017] [Revised: 10/19/2017] [Accepted: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
This work reports the first ground-based atmospheric measurements of 26 halocarbons in Singapore, an urban-industrial city-state in Southeast (SE) Asia. A total of 166 whole air canister samples collected during two intensive 7 Southeast Asian Studies (7SEAS) campaigns (August-October 2011 and 2012) were analyzed for C1-C2 halocarbons using gas chromatography-electron capture/mass spectrometric detection. The halocarbon dataset was supplemented with measurements of selected non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHCs), C1-C5 alkyl nitrates, sulfur gases and carbon monoxide to better understand sources and atmospheric processes. The median observed atmospheric mixing ratios of CFCs, halons, CCl4 and CH3CCl3 were close to global tropospheric background levels, with enhancements in the 1-17% range. This provided the first measurement evidence from SE Asia of the effectiveness of Montreal Protocol and related national-scale regulations instituted in the 1990s to phase-out ozone depleting substances (ODS). First- and second-generation CFC replacements (HCFCs and HFCs) dominated the atmospheric halocarbon burden with HFC-134a, HCFC-22 and HCFC-141b exhibiting enhancements of 39-67%. By combining near-source measurements in Indonesia with receptor data in Singapore, regionally transported peat-forest burning smoke was found to impact levels of several NMHCs (ethane, ethyne, benzene, and propane) and short-lived halocarbons (CH3I, CH3Cl, and CH3Br) in a subset of the receptor samples. The strong signatures of these species near peat-forest fires were potentially affected by atmospheric dilution/mixing during transport and by mixing with substantial urban/regional backgrounds at the receptor. Quantitative source apportionment was carried out using positive matrix factorization (PMF), which identified industrial emissions related to refrigeration, foam blowing, and solvent use in chemical, pharmaceutical and electronics industries as the major source of halocarbons (34%) in Singapore. This was followed by marine and terrestrial biogenic activity (28%), residual levels of ODS from pre-Montreal Protocol operations (16%), seasonal incidences of peat-forest smoke (13%), and fumigation related to quarantine and pre-shipment (QPS) applications (7%).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sayantan Sarkar
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 5A Engineering Drive 1, Singapore 117411, Singapore.
| | - Wei Hong Fan
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, 1 Engineering Drive 2, Singapore 117576, Singapore
| | - Shiguo Jia
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, 1 Engineering Drive 2, Singapore 117576, Singapore
| | - Donald R Blake
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, 1102 Natural Sciences 2, Irvine, CA 92697-2025, USA
| | - Jeffrey S Reid
- Naval Research Laboratory, Marine Meteorology Division, 7 Grace Hopper Avenue Stop 2, Monterey, CA 93943-5502, USA
| | - Puji Lestari
- Environmental Engineering Department, Institut Teknologi Bandung, JL. Ganesha No. 10, Bandung 40132, Indonesia
| | - Liya E Yu
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 5A Engineering Drive 1, Singapore 117411, Singapore; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, 1 Engineering Drive 2, Singapore 117576, Singapore
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Denzler B, Bogdal C, Henne S, Obrist D, Steinbacher M, Hungerbühler K. Inversion Approach to Validate Mercury Emissions Based on Background Air Monitoring at the High Altitude Research Station Jungfraujoch (3580 m). ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:2846-2853. [PMID: 28191932 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b05630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The reduction of emissions of mercury is a declared aim of the Minamata Convention, a UN treaty designed to protect human health and the environment from adverse effects of mercury. To assess the effectiveness of the convention in the future, better constraints about the current mercury emissions is a premise. In our study, we applied a top-down approach to quantify mercury emissions on the basis of atmospheric mercury measurements conducted at the remote high altitude monitoring station Jungfraujoch, Switzerland. We established the source-receptor relationships and by the means of atmospheric inversion we were able to quantify spatially resolved European emissions of 89 ± 14 t/a for elemental mercury. Our European emission estimate is 17% higher than the bottom-up emission inventory, which is within stated uncertainties. However, some regions with unexpectedly high emissions were identified. Stationary combustion, in particular in coal-fired power plants, is found to be the main responsible sector for increased emission estimates. Our top-down approach, based on measurements, provides an independent constraint on mercury emissions, helps to improve and refine reported emission inventories, and can serve for continued assessment of future changes in emissions independent from bottom-up inventories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Basil Denzler
- Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering, ETH Zurich , Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Christian Bogdal
- Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering, ETH Zurich , Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Stephan Henne
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Obrist
- Desert Research Institute , Division of Atmospheric Sciences, 2215 Raggio Parkway, Reno, Nevada 89512, United States
| | - Martin Steinbacher
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Konrad Hungerbühler
- Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering, ETH Zurich , Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland
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Descombes P, Petitpierre B, Morard E, Berthoud M, Guisan A, Vittoz P. Monitoring and distribution modelling of invasive species along riverine habitats at very high resolution. Biol Invasions 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s10530-016-1257-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Cho HG, Andrews L. Matrix Infrared Spectra and Density Functional Calculations of CH2Cl-Cl and CH2Br-Br Produced by Laser-ablated Metal Plume Irradiation. B KOREAN CHEM SOC 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/bkcs.10301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Han-Gook Cho
- Department of Chemistry; Incheon National University; Incheon 406-772 Korea
| | - Lester Andrews
- Department of Chemistry; University of Virginia; Charlottesville VA 22904-4319 USA
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Global emissions of refrigerants HCFC-22 and HFC-134a: unforeseen seasonal contributions. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:17379-84. [PMID: 25422438 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1417372111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
HCFC-22 (CHClF2) and HFC-134a (CH2FCF3) are two major gases currently used worldwide in domestic and commercial refrigeration and air conditioning. HCFC-22 contributes to stratospheric ozone depletion, and both species are potent greenhouse gases. In this work, we study in situ observations of HCFC-22 and HFC-134a taken from research aircraft over the Pacific Ocean in a 3-y span [HIaper-Pole-to-Pole Observations (HIPPO) 2009-2011] and combine these data with long-term ground observations from global surface sites [National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases Experiment (AGAGE) networks]. We find the global annual emissions of HCFC-22 and HFC-134a have increased substantially over the past two decades. Emissions of HFC-134a are consistently higher compared with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) inventory since 2000, by 60% more in recent years (2009-2012). Apart from these decadal emission constraints, we also quantify recent seasonal emission patterns showing that summertime emissions of HCFC-22 and HFC-134a are two to three times higher than wintertime emissions. This unforeseen large seasonal variation indicates that unaccounted mechanisms controlling refrigerant gas emissions are missing in the existing inventory estimates. Possible mechanisms enhancing refrigerant losses in summer are (i) higher vapor pressure in the sealed compartment of the system at summer high temperatures and (ii) more frequent use and service of refrigerators and air conditioners in summer months. Our results suggest that engineering (e.g., better temperature/vibration-resistant system sealing and new system design of more compact/efficient components) and regulatory (e.g., reinforcing system service regulations) steps to improve containment of these gases from working devices could effectively reduce their release to the atmosphere.
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Cho HG. Observation of Elusive CF 2Cl…Cl in Matrix Infrared Spectra and Density Functional Calculations. B KOREAN CHEM SOC 2013. [DOI: 10.5012/bkcs.2013.34.11.3274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Cho HG, Andrews L. Matrix infrared spectra and density functional calculations for new iso-halomethanes: CHCl2-Cl, CHFCl-Cl, CFCl2-Cl, CHBr2-Br, and CBr3-Br in solid argon. J Phys Chem A 2013; 117:6525-35. [PMID: 23802623 DOI: 10.1021/jp4046534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Laser ablation of transition metals for reactions with halocarbons to produce new metal bearing molecules also exposed these samples to laser plume radiation and its resulting photochemistry. Investigations with CCl4 also produced several known neutral and charged intermediate species, including the iso-tetrachloromethane CCl3-Cl observed in previous work and identified by the Maier group. CHCl2-Cl, CHFCl-Cl, and CFCl2-Cl, photoisomers of CHCl3, CHFCl2, and CFCl3, were also identified in matrix IR spectra. The new C-X bonds are shorter than those of the reactants, and the Cl atom that is weakly bonded to the residual Cl atom forms an unusually strong C-Cl bond. NBO analysis reveals substantial C═Cl double-bond character, and the weak Cl···Cl bond is largely ionic. Therefore, the CHX2-X species can be represented as HXC═X(δ+)···X(δ-). Ionic properties are revealed for CCl3-Cl, which has an average C-Cl bond length near the median for the CCl3 radical and cation and a natural charge of +0.49 for the CCl3 subunit. IRC computations reproduce smooth interconversion between the reactants and products, and the transition state is energetically close to the product, which is consistent with its disappearance on visible irradiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han-Gook Cho
- Department of Chemistry, University of Incheon, 119 Academy-ro, Songdo-dong, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon 406-772, South Korea
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