MS2 bacteriophage reduction and microbial communities in biosand filters

Evaluation of woodchips-amended biosand filter for nitrate and MS2 bacteriophage reduction

In this study, two types of woodchip-amended biosand filters (Filter A sand: woodchip = 33%: 67% versus Filter B sand: woodchip = 50%: 50%, by volume) were constructed, and their abilities to remove MS2 bacteriophage and nitrate were investigated. The results indicated that Filter A and Filter B could reduce nitrate up to 40 and 36%, respectively, indicating that the nitrate reduction increased with the increase in woodchip proportion. The study underscores a positive correlation between nitrate reduction and proportional increase in woodchip content, implying the potential for fine-tuning nitrate removal by varying sand-woodchip compositions. W-BSFs could remove MS2 bacteriophage to 1.91-log10 (98.8%) by Filter A and 1.88-log10 (98.7%) by Filter B over 39 weeks. The difference in sand-woodchip proportion did not significantly impact the MS2 reduction, demonstrating that a single W-BSF can maintain its virus removal performance fairly well over a long-term period. These results indicated that the nitrate reduction could be adjusted by varying sand-woodchip contents without impacting virus removal performance. Microbial community analysis indicated that the nitrate removal by the W-BSFs could be attributed to the denitrifying bacteria, such as the family Streptomycetaceae, the genera Pseudomonas, and Bacillus, and relative abundances of the phylum Nitrospirae.

Narrow host range phages infect essential bacteria for water purification reactions in groundwater-fed rapid sand filters

Biofiltration is used worldwide to provide safe potable water due to its low energy demand and excellent treatment performance. For instance, in Denmark, over 95% of drinking water is supplied through groundwater-fed rapid sand filters (RSF). Bacteriophages, viruses that infect bacteria, have been shown to shape the taxonomic and functional composition of microbial communities across a range of natural and engineering systems. However, phages in the biofiltration systems are rarely studied, despite the central role microbes play in water purification. To probe this, metagenomic data from surface water, groundwater and mixed source water biofiltration units (n = 26 from China, Europe and USA) for drinking water production were analysed to characterize prokaryotic viruses and to identify their potential microbial hosts. The source water type and geographical location are found to exert influence on the composition of the phageome in biofilters. Although the viral abundance (71,676 ± 17,841 RPKM) in biofilters is only 14.4% and 17.0% lower than those of the nutrient-rich wastewater treatment plants and fresh surface waters, the richness (1,441 ± 1,046) and diversity (Inverse Simpson: 91 ± 61) in biofiltration units are significantly less by a factor of 2-5 and 3-4, respectively. In depth analysis of data from 24 groundwater-fed RSFs in Denmark revealed a core phageome shared by most RSFs, which was consistently linked to dominant microbial hosts involved in key biological reactions for water purification. Finally, the high number of specific links detected between phages and bacterial species and the large proportion of lytic phages (77%) led to the conjecture that phages regulate bacterial populations through predation, preventing the proliferation of dominant species and contributing to the established functional redundancy among the dominant microbial groups. In conclusion, bacteriophages are likely to play a significant role in water treatment within biofilters, particularly through interactions with key bacterial species.

Slow Sand Filters for the 21st Century: A Review

Safe drinking water remains a major global challenge, especially in rural areas where, according to UNICEF, 80% of those without access to improved water systems reside. While water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH)-related diseases and deaths are common outcomes of unsafe water, there is also an economic burden associated with unsafe water. These burdens are most prominent in rural areas in less-developed nations. Slow sand filters (SSFs), or biological sand filters (BSFs), are ideal water treatment solutions for these low-resource regions. SSFs are the oldest municipal drinking water treatment systems and improve water quality by removing suspended particles, dissolved organic chemicals, and other contaminants, effectively reducing turbidity and associated taste and odor problems. The removal of turbidity and dissolved organic compounds from the water enables the use of low-cost disinfection methods, such as chlorination. While the working principles of slow sand filtration have remained the same for over two centuries, the design, sizes, and application of slow sand filters have been customized over the years. This paper reviews these adaptations and recent reports on performance regarding contaminant removal. We specifically address the removal of turbidity and microbial contaminants, which are of great concern to rural populations in developing countries.

Biological Layer in Household Slow Sand Filters: Characterization and Evaluation of the Impact on Systems Efficiency

Schmutzdecke, the biofilm formed on the top of the sand bed in household slow sand filters (HSSF) is a key factor for the filters’ high efficiency in removing particles and microorganisms from water. This paper aims to investigate the extracellular polymeric substances composition (carbohydrates and proteins), biomass, dissolved oxygen, and microbial community in two types of HSSFs and identify a correlation between them and their efficiency. A continuous- and an intermittent-HSSF (C-HSSF and I-HSSF) were studied to treat river water for 48 days. Their efficiencies for bacteria (E. coli and total coliforms), turbidity, and apparent color removals were analyzed. Results clearly showed an increase of carbohydrates (from 21.4/22.5 to 101.2/93.9 mg·g−1 for C-/I-HSSF) and proteins (from 34.9 to 217/307.8 mg g−1 for C-/I-HSSF), total solids (from 0.03/<0.03 to 0.11/0.19 g L−1 for C-/I-HSSF), dissolved oxygen depletion inside the filter (6.00 and 5.15 mg L−1 for C- and I-HSSF) and diversity of microorganisms over time, pointing out the schmutzdecke development. A clear improvement on the HSSFs’ efficiency was observed during operation, i.e., E. coli removal of 3.23 log and 2.98 log for total coliforms, turbidity from 60 to 95%, and apparent color from 50 to 90%.

Influence of Particle Size of River Sand on the Decontamination Process in the Slow Sand Filter Treatment of Micro-Polluted Water

Slow sand filters (SSFs) have been widely used in the construction of water plants in rural areas. It is necessary to find river sand of suitable particle size to improve SSF treatment of micro-polluted water so as to ensure the effective and long-term operation of these plants. In this study, SSF1# (particle size of 0.1–0.5 mm), SSF2# (particle size of 0.5–1 mm), and SSF3# (particle size of 1–1.5 mm) were selected. The physical absorption, CODMn and NH4+-N removal effect, and microbial community were analyzed. According to Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption model fitting, the smaller the particle size of the river sand, the more pollutants are adsorbed under the same conditions. SSF1# has the shortest membrane-forming time, highest CODMn and NH4+-N removal rate, and highest Shannon estimator, indicating that there are more abundant microbial species in the biofilm. Mesorhizobium, Pannonibacter, Pseudoxanthomonas, Aquabacterium, Devosia, and other bacteria have different proportions in each system, each forming its own stable biological chain system. The effluent quality of the three SSFs can meet drinking water standards. However, river sand with a particle size range of 0.1–0.5 mm is easily blocked, and thus the recommended size range for SSF is 0.5–1 mm.

A critical overview of household slow sand filters for water treatment

Household, or point-of-use (POU), water treatments are effective alternatives to provide safe drinking water in locations isolated from a water treatment and distribution network. The household slow sand filter (HSSF) is amongst the most effective and promising POU alternatives available today. Since the development of the patented biosand filter in the early 1990s, the HSSF has undergone a number of modifications and adaptations to improve its performance, making it easier to operate and increase users' acceptability. Consequently, several HSSF models are currently available, including those with alternative designs and constant operation, in addition to the patented ones. In this scenario, the present paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview from the earliest to the most recent publications on the HSSF design, operational parameters, removal mechanisms, efficiency, and field experiences. Based on a critical discussion, this paper will contribute to expanding the knowledge of HSSF in the peer-reviewed literature.

Influence of slow sand filter cleaning process type on filter media biomass: backwashing versus scraping

Biomass was assessed as a new approach for evaluating backwashed slow sand filters (BSF). Slow sand filtration (SSF) is a simple technology for water treatment, where biological mechanisms play a key role in filtration efficiency. Backwashed slow sand filters were previously recommended for small-scale filters (~1 m² of filtration area) as an alternative to conventional filters that are usually cleaned by scraping (ScSF). Biomass was never evaluated in BSF, which is a gap in the knowledge of this technology, considering the importance of its biological mechanisms. Therefore, for the first time, two filters operating under the same conditions were used to compare the influence of backwashing on biomass; one filter was cleaned by backwashing and the other by scraping. Biomass along the filter media depth (40 cm) was assessed by different techniques and compared in terms of cellular biomass (by chloroform fumigation), volatile solids, bacterial community (by 16S rRNA gene sequencing), and observations by scanning electron and fluorescence microscopy. Filters were also monitored and compared regarding filtered water quality and headloss; their differences were related to the different cleaning processes. Overall, filtered water quality was acceptable for slow sand filter standards (turbidity < 1 NTU and total coliform removal > 1 log). However, headloss developed faster on scraped filters, and biomass was different between the two filters. Backwashing did not significantly disturb biomass while scraping changed its surface sand layers. Cell biomass was more abundant and spread across the filtration depth, related to lower headloss, turbidity, and cyanobacterial breakthrough. These results agreed with the water quality and microscopy observations. The bacterial community was also less stratified in the backwashed filter media. These results expand the knowledge of backwashing use in slow sand filters, demonstrating that this process preserves more biomass than scraping. In addition, biomass preservation can lead to bacterial selectivity and faster filter ripening. Considering the importance of biomass preservation on slow sand filtration and its biological filtration mechanisms, the results presented in this paper are promising. The novel insight that BSF can preserve biomass after backwashing may contribute to increasing its application in small communities.

Influence of sand depth and pause period on microbial removal in traditional and modified biosand filters

Three different-sized biosand filters (i.e., the center for Affordable Water and Sanitation Technology v10 concrete filter, a 5-gal bucket filter, and a 2-gal bucket filter with fine sand depths of 54, 15, and 10 cm, respectively), configured with and without the addition of iron nails to the diffuser basin, were evaluated for removal of bacteria, protozoa, and viruses over pause periods ranging from 1 to 72 hrs. Biosand filtration proved effective at all pause periods tested, and log10 removal of bacteria and protozoan cysts for all filter sizes and configurations ranged from 3 to 4. The addition of nails resulted in significantly better (p<0.05) bacteria removal for all filter sizes and significantly better (p<0.02) protozoan removal for the bucket-sized filters. Log10 virus removal for all filter types and sizes ranged from <1 to 6. Both the pause period and filter type (size/configuration) influenced virus removal, and the addition of nails to the filter improved virus removal at the shorter pause periods. Scaled-down biosand filters provide a viable household water treatment option for some of the millions of people that still lack access to an improved water source.

Biosand Filter as a Point-of-Use Water Treatment Technology: Influence of Turbidity on Microorganism Removal Efficiency

The number of people living without access to clean water can be reduced by the implementation of point-of-use (POU) water treatment. Among POU treatment systems, the domestic biosand filter (BSF) stands out as a viable technology. However, the performance of the BSF varies with the inflow water quality characteristics, especially turbidity. In some locations, people have no choice but to treat raw water that has turbidity above recommended levels for the technology. This study aimed to measure the efficiency with which the BSF removes microorganisms from well water and from fecal-contaminated water with turbidity levels of 3, 25, and 50 NTU. Turbidity was controlled by the addition of kaolin to water. Turbidity removal varied from 88% to 99%. Reductions in total coliform (TC) and Escherichia coli ranged from 0.54–2.01 and 1.2–2.2 log removal values (LRV), respectively. The BSF that received water with a higher level of turbidity showed the greatest reduction in the concentration of microorganisms. Additional testing with water contaminated with four bacterial pure cultures showed reductions between 2.7 and 3.6 LRV. A higher reduction in microorganisms was achieved after 30–35 days in operation. Despite the filter’s high efficiency, the filtrates still had some microorganisms, and a disinfection POU treatment could be added to increase water safety.

Drinking water treatment by multistage filtration on a household scale: Efficiency and challenges

Universalising actions aimed at water supply in rural communities and indigenous populations must focus on simple and low-cost technologies adapted to the local context. In this setting, this research studied the dynamic gravel filter (DGF) as a pre-treatment to household slow-sand filters (HSSFs), which is the first description of a household multistage filtration scale to treat drinking water. DGFs (with and without a non-woven blanket on top of the gravel layer) followed by HSSFs were tested. DGFs operated with a filtration rate of 3.21 m³ m^-2.d^-1 and HSSFs with 1.52 m³ m^-2.d^-1. Influent water contained kaolinite, humic acid and suspension of coliforms and protozoa. Physical-chemical parameters were evaluated, as well as Escherichia coli, Giardia spp. cysts and Cryptosporidium spp. oocyst reductions. Removal was low (up to 6.6%) concerning true colour, total organic carbon and absorbance (λ = 254 nm). Nevertheless, HMSFs showed turbidity decrease above 60%, E. coli reduction up to 1.78 log, Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts reductions up to 3.15 log and 2.24 log, respectively. The non-woven blanket was shown as an important physical barrier to remove solids, E. coli and protozoa.

Microbial Dynamics of Biosand Filters and Contributions of the Microbial Food Web to Effective Treatment of Wastewater-Impacted Water Sources

Biosand filtration systems are widely used for drinking water treatment, from household-level, intermittently operated filters to large-scale continuous municipal systems. While it is well-established that microbial activity within the filter is essential for the removal of potential pathogens and other contaminants, the microbial ecology of these systems and how microbial succession relates to their performance remain poorly resolved. We determined how different source waters influence the composition, temporal dynamics, and performance of microbial communities in intermittently operated biosand filters. We operated lab-scale biosand filters, adding daily inputs from two contrasting water sources with differing nutrient concentrations and found that total coliform removal increased and became less variable after 4 weeks, regardless of water source. Total effluent biomass was also lower than total influent biomass for both water sources. Bacterial community composition, assessed via cultivation-independent DNA sequencing, varied by water source, sample type (influent, effluent, or sand), and time. Despite these differences, we identified specific taxa that were consistently removed, including common aquatic and wastewater bacteria. In contrast, taxa consistently more abundant in the sand and effluent included predatory, intracellular, and symbiotic bacteria.IMPORTANCE Although microbial activities are known to contribute to the effectiveness of biosand filtration for drinking water treatment, we have a limited understanding of what microbial groups are most effectively removed, colonize the sand, or make it through the filter. This study tracked the microbial communities in the influent, sand, and effluent of lab-scale, intermittently operated biosand filters over 8 weeks. These results represent the most detailed and time-resolved investigation of the microbial communities in biosand filters typical of those implemented at the household level in many developing countries. We show the importance of the microbial food web in biosand filtration, and we identified taxa that are preferentially removed from wastewater-impacted water sources. We found consistent patterns in filter effectiveness from source waters with differing nutrient loads and, likewise, identified specific bacterial taxa that were consistently more abundant in effluent waters, taxa that are important targets for further study and posttreatment.

Microcystis aeruginosa and microcystin-LR removal by household slow sand filters operating in continuous and intermittent flows

A household slow sand filter (HSSF) is a widely used water treatment technology recognized as one of the most effective and sustainable in reducing waterborne diseases. However, there is a lack of knowledge concerning its behaviour in the presence of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins. In this context, the study aimed to evaluate HSSF ability to remove Microcystis aeruginosa cells (stain BB005) and microcystin-LR from water, among other parameters, when operated under continuous (C-HSSF) and intermittent (I-HSSF) flows. CHSSF was operated at a constant filtration rate (1.22 m³ m^-2 day^-1), while I-HSSF was operated at a variable filtration rate (starting at 2.95 m³ m^-2 day^-1 and finishing at zero). Each filter produced 60 L day^-1. The influence of the pause period was also tested in the I-HSSF. The water from the study was prepared by inoculating M. aeruginosa culture in water from a well to a final cell density of ± 1 × 10⁵ cells mL^-1. M. aeruginosa removal rates were 2.39 ± 0.34 log and 2.01 ± 0.43 log by CHSSF and I-HSSF, respectively. Microcystin-LR concentration in studied water was 5.55 μg L^-1, and both filters produced filtered water with microcystin concentrations below 1.0 μg L^-1, the maximum value recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO), for most of the samples. Turbidity and apparent colour were also within WHO guidelines. Filters operating with different flow regimes and distinct residence times did not statistically influence treatment efficiencies. Both filters showed promising results in the M. aeruginosa and microcystin-LR removals from water; nevertheless, more research is needed to understand the mechanisms involved in the reduction of both cyanobacteria and cyanotoxin through household slow sand filtration.

Impact of surface maintenance on BioSand filter performance and flow

The BioSand filter (BSF) is a household scaled, intermittently operated, slow sand filter. The BSF requires maintenance to remove trapped sediments. This study evaluated the effects of maintenance on the filter's flow rate and performance. Four concrete BSFs received three styles of maintenance: surface agitation (SA), stirring method (SM), and sand removal (SR). Effluent water was collected from the filter between 0-2 L effluent (0-2 L effluent) and between 15-20 L effluent (15 L+ effluent). After maintenance, effluent at 15 L+ (no pause time) showed a significant decrease in thermotolerant coliform removal rates by 0.66-0.91 log (SA), 0.57-0.67 log (SM) and 0.32-0.83 log (RM) (<0.001). Effluent water at 0-2 L (with pause time) did not significantly decrease in thermotolerant coliform removal rates (>0.17) for any maintenance method. The recovery duration after maintenance for all methods at 0-2 L effluent had a median recovery of <1.2 days. The effluent at 15 L+ had a longer recovery period (at least 3.9, 3.0 and 12.75 days for the SA, SM, and SR method, respectively). The flow rate recovery for SA (76%) and SM (82%) was lower compared to SR (138%).

Metagenomic analysis of rapid gravity sand filter microbial communities suggests novel physiology of Nitrospira spp

Rapid gravity sand filtration is a drinking water production technology widely used around the world. Microbially catalyzed processes dominate the oxidative transformation of ammonia, reduced manganese and iron, methane and hydrogen sulfide, which may all be present at millimolar concentrations when groundwater is the source water. In this study, six metagenomes from various locations within a groundwater-fed rapid sand filter (RSF) were analyzed. The community gene catalog contained most genes of the nitrogen cycle, with particular abundance in genes of the nitrification pathway. Genes involved in different carbon fixation pathways were also abundant, with the reverse tricarboxylic acid cycle pathway most abundant, consistent with an observed Nitrospira dominance. From the metagenomic data set, 14 near-complete genomes were reconstructed and functionally characterized. On the basis of their genetic content, a metabolic and geochemical model was proposed. The organisms represented by draft genomes had the capability to oxidize ammonium, nitrite, hydrogen sulfide, methane, potentially iron and manganese as well as to assimilate organic compounds. A composite Nitrospira genome was recovered, and amo-containing Nitrospira genome contigs were identified. This finding, together with the high Nitrospira abundance, and the abundance of atypical amo and hao genes, suggests the potential for complete ammonium oxidation by Nitrospira, and a major role of Nitrospira in the investigated RSFs and potentially other nitrifying environments.

Microbial community composition of a household sand filter used for arsenic, iron, and manganese removal from groundwater in Vietnam

Household sand filters are used in rural areas of Vietnam to remove As, Fe, and Mn from groundwater for drinking water purposes. Currently, it is unknown what role microbial processes play in mineral oxide formation and As removal during water filtration. We performed most probable number counts to quantify the abundance of physiological groups of microorganisms capable of catalyzing Fe- and Mn-redox transformation processes in a household sand filter. We found up to 10(4) cells g(-1) dry sand of nitrate-reducing Fe(II)-oxidizing bacteria and Fe(III)-reducing bacteria, and no microaerophilic Fe(II)-oxidizing bacteria, but up to 10(6) cells g(-1) dry sand Mn-oxidizing bacteria. 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing confirmed MPN counts insofar as only low abundances of known taxa capable of performing Fe- and Mn-redox transformations were detected. Instead the microbial community on the sand filter was dominated by nitrifying microorganisms, e.g. Nitrospira, Nitrosomonadales, and an archaeal OTU affiliated to Candidatus Nitrososphaera. Quantitative PCR for Nitrospira and ammonia monooxygenase genes agreed with DNA sequencing results underlining the numerical importance of nitrifiers in the sand filter. Based on our analysis of the microbial community composition and previous studies on the solid phase chemistry of sand filters we conclude that abiotic Fe(II) oxidation processes prevail over biotic Fe(II) oxidation on the filter. Yet, Mn-oxidizing bacteria play an important role for Mn(II) oxidation and Mn(III/IV) oxide precipitation in a distinct layer of the sand filter. The formation of Mn(III/IV) oxides contributes to abiotic As(III) oxidation and immobilization of As(V) by sorption to Fe(III) (oxyhydr)oxides.

Investigation of E. coli and Virus Reductions Using Replicate, Bench-Scale Biosand Filter Columns and Two Filter Media

The biosand filter (BSF) is an intermittently operated, household-scale slow sand filter for which little data are available on the effect of sand composition on treatment performance. Therefore, bench-scale columns were prepared according to the then-current (2006-2007) guidance on BSF design and run in parallel to conduct two microbial challenge experiments of eight-week duration. Triplicate columns were loaded with Accusand silica or crushed granite to compare virus and E. coli reduction performance. Bench-scale experiments provided confirmation that increased schmutzdecke growth, as indicated by decline in filtration rate, is the primary factor causing increased E. coli reductions of up to 5-log10. However, reductions of challenge viruses improved only modestly with increased schmutzdecke growth. Filter media type (Accusand silica vs. crushed granite) did not influence reduction of E. coli bacteria. The granite media without backwashing yielded superior virus reductions when compared to Accusand. However, for columns in which the granite media was first backwashed (to yield a more consistent distribution of grains and remove the finest size fraction), virus reductions were not significantly greater than in columns with Accusand media. It was postulated that a decline in surface area with backwashing decreased the sites and surface area available for virus sorption and/or biofilm growth and thus decreased the extent of virus reduction. Additionally, backwashing caused preferential flow paths and deviation from plug flow; backwashing is not part of standard BSF field preparation and is not recommended for BSF column studies. Overall, virus reductions were modest and did not meet the 5- or 3-log10 World Health Organization performance targets.