Light-initiated transformations of fullerenol in aqueous media

Versatile applications of fullerenol nanoparticles

Nanomaterials have become increasingly important over time as research technology has enabled the progressively precise study of materials at the nanoscale. Developing an understanding of how nanomaterials are produced and tuned allows scientists to utilise their unique properties for a variety of applications, many of which are already incorporated into commercial products. Fullerenol nanoparticles C60(OH)n, 2 ≤ n ≤ 44 are fullerene derivatives and are produced synthetically. They have good biocompatibility, low toxicity and no immunological reactivity. In addition, their nanometre size, large surface area to volume ratio, ability to penetrate cell membranes, adaptable surface that can be easily modified with different functional groups, drug release, high physical stability in biological media, ability to remove free radicals, magnetic and optical properties make them desirable candidates for various applications. This review comprehensively summarises the various applications of fullerenol nanoparticles in different scientific fields such as nanobiomedicine, including antibacterial and antiviral agents, and provides an overview of their use in agriculture and biosensor technology. Recommendations are also made for future research that would further elucidate the mechanisms of fullerenols actions.

Effects of sunlight on the fate of graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide nanomaterials in the natural surface water

Graphene nanomaterials have been commercialized for use in the electronic and biomedical industries, increasing their dissemination into surface waters and subsequent transformation in natural aquatic environment. While the photodegradation of graphene oxide nanomaterials has been investigated in the past, previous research did not consider actual natural aquatic environment and also focused on primarily graphene oxide nanomaterials. In this study, photodegradation of graphene nanomaterials with varying oxidation levels, including graphene oxide (GO) and partially reduced graphene oxide (rGO-2 h) are evaluated in Columbia River Water and compared with each other. Our results indicate that both direct and indirect photolysis of graphene-based nanomaterials will occur simultaneously in natural surface water. However, environmentally relevant concentrations of photosensitizers in surface water are not capable of producing sufficient ^·OH to initiate degradation of GO via indirect photolysis. For all conditions tested, GO showed more rapid photodegradation compared to rGO. Overall, direct and indirect photodegradation of graphene oxide nanomaterials in natural surface water is minimal and slow indicating that phototransformation of graphene-based nanomaterials will be insignificant in natural surface water.

A Review on the Environmental Fate Models for Predicting the Distribution of Engineered Nanomaterials in Surface Waters

Exposure assessment is a key component in the risk assessment of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs). While direct and quantitative measurements of ENMs in complex environmental matrices remain challenging, environmental fate models (EFMs) can be used alternatively for estimating ENMs' distributions in the environment. This review describes and assesses the development and capability of EFMs, focusing on surface waters. Our review finds that current engineered nanomaterial (ENM) exposure models can be largely classified into three types: material flow analysis models (MFAMs), multimedia compartmental models (MCMs), and spatial river/watershed models (SRWMs). MFAMs, which is already used to derive predicted environmental concentrations (PECs), can be used to estimate the releases of ENMs as inputs to EFMs. Both MCMs and SRWMs belong to EFMs. MCMs are spatially and/or temporally averaged models, which describe ENM fate processes as intermedia transfer of well-mixed environmental compartments. SRWMs are spatiotemporally resolved models, which consider the variability in watershed and/or stream hydrology, morphology, and sediment transport of river networks. As the foundation of EFMs, we also review the existing and emerging ENM fate processes and their inclusion in recent EFMs. We find that while ENM fate processes, such as heteroaggregation and dissolution, are commonly included in current EFMs, few models consider photoreaction and sulfidation, evaluation of the relative importance of fate processes, and the fate of weathered/transformed ENMs. We conclude the review by identifying the opportunities and challenges in using EFMs for ENMs.

Light intensity-induced photocurrent switching effect

A better control over processes responsible for the photocurrent generation in semiconductors and nanocomposites is essential in the fabrication of photovoltaic devices, efficient photocatalysts and optoelectronic elements. Therefore, new approaches towards photochemical properties tuning are intensively searched for. Among numerous parameters, the photocurrent polarity is of great importance to the overall performance of a device. Usually, the polarity is controlled through an alignment of electronic states/bands, tailoring of applied potential or suitable selection of incident light wavelengths. In most scenarios though, the influence of light intensity is somehow neglected and either some arbitrarily chosen, natural conditions are mimicked or this parameter is varied only in a narrow range. Here we present a ternary nanocomposite in which the persistent photocurrent polarity switching is achieved through changes in the light intensity. We also present arguments suggesting this behaviour is of a general character and should be considered also in other photochemical systems.

Photochemical Aging of Soot in the Aqueous Phase: Release of Dissolved Black Carbon and the Formation of 1O2

The photochemical aging of soot in the aqueous phase could have an important influence on water environments such as fog water and wet aerosols in the atmosphere, as well as lakes and oceans. In this study, we systematically investigated the photochemistry of soot in the aqueous phase. Soot releases dissolved black carbon into the aqueous phase during photoreactions, which is attributed to the phototransformation of the nonpolar unsaturated C-H species in soot to polar carbonyl-containing species. More importantly, we found that soot suspensions, particularly those of the dissolved part of soot, were effective photosensitizers for the generation of singlet oxygen (¹O₂). The ¹O₂ apparent quantum yield of the dissolved part reached 33 ± 2% under 377 nm irradiation, which is an order of magnitude higher than those of most types of well-studied dissolved organic matter in water. As a result, soot could impact the environmental fate of coexisting organic contaminants, such as the photodegradation of bisphenol A. This study will not only give insight into the photochemistry of soot in the liquid phase but also reveal the significant implications of soot photoaging in the aqueous phase by the release and degradation of organic matter.

Interaction of polyhydroxy fullerenes with ferrihydrite: adsorption and aggregation

The rapid development of nanoscience and nanotechnology, with thousands types of nanomaterials being produced, will lead to various environmental impacts. Thus, understanding the behaviors and fate of these nanomaterials is essential. This study focused on the interaction between polyhydroxy fullerenes (PHF) and ferrihydrite (Fh), a widespread iron (oxyhydr)oxide nanomineral and geosorbent. Our results showed that PHF were effectively adsorbed by Fh. The adsorption isotherm fitted the D-R model well, with an adsorption capacity of 67.1mg/g. The adsorption mean free energy of 10.72kJ/mol suggested that PHF were chemisorbed on Fh. An increase in the solution pH and a decrease of the Fh surface zeta potential were observed after the adsorption of PHF on Fh; moreover, increasing initial solution pH led to a reduction of adsorption. The Fourier transform infrared spectra detected a red shift of C-O stretching from 1075 to 1062cm^-1 and a decrease of Fe-O bending, implying the interaction between PHF oxygenic functional groups and Fh surface hydroxyls. On the other hand, PHF affected the aggregation and reactivity of Fh by changing its surface physicochemical properties. Aggregation of PHF and Fh with individual particle sizes increasing from 2nm to larger than 5nm was measured by atomic force microscopy. The uniform distribution of C and Fe suggested that the aggregates of Fh were possibly bridged by PHF. Our results indicated that the interaction between PHF and Fh could evidently influence the migration of PHF, as well as the aggregation and reactivity of Fh.

Photochemical reactivity of aqueous fullerene clusters: C60 versus C70

Over the past few years, there has been a strong interest in exploring the potential impact of fullerenes in the environment. Despite that both C₆₀ and C₇₀ have been detected in environmental matrices, the research on the impact of higher fullerenes, such as C_70, has been largely missing. This study evaluated and compared the phototransformation of aqueous C₆₀ and C₇₀ clusters (nC₆₀ and nC₇₀) and their ¹O₂ production under sunlight and lamp light irradiation (315nm, 360nm and 420nm). The nC₆₀ and nC₇₀ samples formed by direct mixing with water adopted a face-centered cubic (FCC) crystal structure. The apparent quantum yields (AQYs) of fullerene phototransformed were relatively constant over the examined wavelengths, while ¹O₂ production AQYs decreased with increased wavelengths. The long-term fate studies with outdoor sunlight indicated that both nC₆₀ and nC₇₀ lost considerable organic carbon contents (>80%) in water after ∼8 months of irradiation and that the intermediate photoproducts of nC₆₀ and nC₇₀ exhibited a progressively increased level of oxygen-containing functionalities. Overall, the study indicates that nC₇₀ can be photochemically removed under sunlight conditions and that the photoreactivity of nC₆₀ based on AQYs is greater than that of nC₇₀.

Phototransformation-Induced Aggregation of Functionalized Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes: The Importance of Amorphous Carbon

Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) with proper functionalization are desirable for applications that require dispersion in aqueous and biological environments, and functionalized SWCNTs also serve as building blocks for conjugation with specific molecules in these applications. In this study, we examined the phototransformation of carboxylated SWCNTs and associated amorphous carbon impurities in the presence or absence of H2O2 under simulated sunlight conditions. We found that while carboxylated SWCNTs were rather unreactive with respect to direct solar photolysis, they photoreacted in the presence of H2O2, forming CO2 and strongly aggregated SWCNT products that precipitated. Photoreaction caused SWCNTs to lose oxygen-containing functionalities, and interestingly, the resulting photoproducts had spectral characteristics similar to those of parent carboxylated SWCNTs whose amorphous carbon was removed by base washing. These results indicated that photoreaction of the amorphous carbon was likely involved. The removal of amorphous carbon after indirect photoreaction was confirmed with thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Further studies using carboxylated SWCNTs with and without base washing indicate that amorphous carbon reduced the extent of aggregation caused by photoreaction. The second-order rate constant for carboxylated SWCNTs reacting with (•)OH was estimated to be in the range of 1.7-3.8 × 10(9) MC(-1) s(-1). The modeled phototransformation half-lives fall in the range of 2.8-280 days in typical sunlit freshwaters. Our study indicates that photosensitized reactions involving (•)OH may be a transformation and removal pathway of functionalized SWCNTs in the aquatic environment, and that the residual amorphous carbon associated with SWCNTs plays a role in SWCNT stabilization.

Probing Photosensitization by Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) photosensitize the production of reactive oxygen species that may damage organisms by biomembrane oxidation or mediate environmental transformations of CNTs. Photosensitization by derivatized carbon nanotubes from various synthetic methods, and thus with different intrinsic characteristics (e.g., diameter and electronic properties), has been investigated under environmentally relevant aquatic conditions. We used the CNT-sensitized photoisomerization of sorbic acid ((2E,4E)-hexa-2,4-dienoic acid) and singlet oxygen formation to quantify the triplet states ((3)CNT*) formed upon irradiation of selected single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). The CNTs used in our studies were derivatized by carboxyl groups to facilitate their dispersion in water. Results indicate that high-defect-density (thus well-stabilized), small-diameter, and semiconducting-rich CNTs have higher-measured excited triplet state formation and therefore singlet oxygen ((1)O2) yield. Derivatized SWCNTs were significantly more photoreactive than derivatized MWCNTs. Moreover, addition of sodium chloride resulted in increased aggregation and small increases in (1)O2 production of CNTs. The most photoreactive CNTs exhibited comparable photoreactivity (in terms of (3)CNT* formation and (1)O2 yield) to reference natural organic matter (NOM) under sunlight irradiation with the same mass-based concentration. Selected reference NOM could therefore be useful in evaluating environmental photoreactivity or intended antibacterial applications of CNTs.

Sunlight affects aggregation and deposition of graphene oxide in the aquatic environment

In this study, we investigate the role of simulated sunlight on the physicochemical properties, aggregation, and deposition of graphene oxide (GO) in aquatic environments. Results show that light exposure under varied environmental conditions significantly impacts the physicochemical properties and aggregation/deposition behaviors of GO. Photo-transformation has negligible effects on GO surface charge, however, GO aggregation rates increase with irradiation time for direct photo-transformation under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Under anaerobic conditions, photo-reduced GO has a greater tendency to form aggregates than under aerobic conditions. Aggregation of photo-transformed GO is notably influenced by ion valence, with higher aggregation found in the presence of divalent ions versus monovalent, but adding natural organic matter (NOM) reduces it. QCM-D studies show that deposition of GO on surfaces coated with organic matter decreases with increased GO irradiation time, indicating a potential increase in GO mobility due to photo-transformation. General deposition trends on Suwannee River Humic Acid (SRHA)-coated surfaces are control GO > aerobically photo-transformed GO ≈ anaerobically photo-transformed GO. The release of deposited GO from SRHA-coated surfaces decreases with increased irradiation time, indicating that photo-transformed GO is strongly attached to the NOM-coated surface.

Advanced oxidation (H₂O₂ and/or UV) of functionalized carbon nanotubes (CNT-OH and CNT-COOH) and its influence on the stabilization of CNTs in water and tannic acid solution

The properties of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) functionalized with -OH and -COOH groups during simulated water treatment with H2O2 and/or UV were tested. There following properties of CNTs were investigated: specific surface area, elemental composition (CHN), dynamic light scattering, Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and changes in the CNTs structure were observed using transmission electron microscopy. Treatment of CNTs with H2O2 and/or UV affected their properties. This effect, however, was different depending on the functionalization of CNTs and also on the factor used (UV and/or H2O2). H2O2 plays a key role as a factor modifying the surface of CNT-OHs, whereas the properties of CNT-COOHs were most affected by UV rays. A shortening of the nanotubes, exfoliation, the opening of their ends, and changes in the surface charge were observed as a result of the action of UV and/or H2O2. The changes in observed parameters may influence the stability of the aqueous suspensions of CNTs.

Photophysical properties and singlet oxygen generation efficiencies of water-soluble fullerene nanoparticles

As various fullerene derivatives have been developed, it is necessary to explore their photophysical properties for potential use in photoelectronics and medicine. Here, we address the photophysical properties of newly synthesized water-soluble fullerene-based nanoparticles and polyhydroxylated fullerene as a representative water-soluble fullerene derivative. They show broad emission band arising from a wide-range of excitation energies. It is attributed to the optical transitions from disorder-induced states, which decay in the nanosecond time range. We determine the kinetic properties of the singlet oxygen ((1)O2) luminescence generated by the fullerene nanoparticles and polyhydroxylated fullerene to consider the potential as photodynamic agents. Triplet state decay of the nanoparticles was longer than (1)O2 lifetime in water. Singlet oxygen quantum yield of a series of the fullerene nanoparticles is comparably higher ranging from 0.15 to 0.2 than that of polyhydroxylated fullerene, which is about 0.06.

Reduction of hydroxylated fullerene (fullerol) in water by zinc: reaction and hemiketal product characterization

Water-soluble, hydroxylated fullerene (fullerol) materials have recently gained increasing attention as they have been identified as the primary product(s) during the exposure of fullerenes (as water stable, nanoscale aggregated C60) to UV light in water. The physical properties and chemical reactivity of resulting fullerols, however, have not been thoroughly studied. In this paper, we identified and characterized the reductive transformation of fullerol (C60(OH)x(ONa)y) by solid zinc metal (Zn(0)) through a series of batch reaction experiments and product characterization, including (13)C NMR, FTIR, XPS, UV-vis, DLS, and TEM. Results indicated the facile formation of water stable, pH sensitive hemiketal functionality as part of a relatively reduced fullerol product. Further, aqueous physical behavior of the product fullerol, as measured by octanol partitioning and surface deposition rates, was observed to significantly differ from the parent material and is consistent with a relative increase in molecular (product) hydrophobicity.

Photochemical transformation of carboxylated multiwalled carbon nanotubes: role of reactive oxygen species

The study investigated the photochemical transformation of carboxylated multiwalled carbon nanotubes (COOH-MWCNTs), an important environmental process affecting their physicochemical characteristics and hence fate and transport. UVA irradiation removed carboxyl groups from COOH-MWCNT surface while creating other oxygen-containing functional groups with an overall decrease in total surface oxygen content. This was attributed to reactions with photogenerated reactive oxygen species (ROS). COOH-MWCNTs generated singlet oxygen ((1)O2) and hydroxyl radical ((•)OH) under UVA light, which exhibited different reactivity toward the COOH-MWCNT surface. Inhibition experiments that isolate the effects of (•)OH and (1)O2 as well as experiments using externally generated (•)OH and (1)O2 separately revealed that (•)OH played an important role in the photochemical transformation of COOH-MWCNTs under UVA irradiation. The Raman spectroscopy and surface functional group analysis results suggested that (•)OH initially reacted with the surface carboxylated carbonaceous fragments, resulting in their degradation or exfoliation. Further reaction between (•)OH and the graphitic sidewall led to formation of defects including functional groups and vacancies. These reactions reduced the surface potential and colloidal stability of COOH-MWCNTs, and are expected to reduce their mobility in aquatic systems.

Quenching and sensitizing fullerene photoreactions by natural organic matter

Effects of natural organic matter (NOM) on the photoreaction kinetics of fullerenes (i.e., C60 and fullerenol) were investigated using simulated sunlight and monochromatic radiation (365 nm). NOM from several sources quenched (slowed) the photoreaction of C60 aggregates in water (aqu/nC60), but sensitized (accelerated) photoreaction of fullerenol. Kinetic studies indicated that the quenching occurred through a static mechanism involving NOM molecules adsorbed on the aqu/nC60 surface. Quenching constants for the photoreaction of aqu/nC60 correlated approximately with optical parameters related to the aromaticity and molecular size of the NOM. Association of aqu/nC60 particles with NOM was investigated indirectly via the study of the aggregation kinetics of colloidal C60 in the presence and absence of NOM as a function of NaCl strength at pH 7. In contrast to aqu/nC60, the photoreaction efficiencies of the hydrophilic fullerene, fullerenol, increased linearly with increasing NOM concentrations and kinetic parameters for the sensitized photoreactions increased as the spectral slope coefficients and ratio of absorption coefficients at 254 to 365 nm (E2:E3) of the NOM increased. The results indicate that triplet excited states of the NOM are key intermediates in the photosensitized reactions.

Biological accumulation of engineered nanomaterials: a review of current knowledge

Due to the widespread use of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) in consumer and industrial products, concerns have been raised over their impacts once released into the ecosystems. While there has been a wealth of studies on the short-term acute toxic effects of ENMs over the past decade, work on the chronic endpoints, such as biological accumulation, has just begun to increase in last 2–3 years. Here, we comprehensively review over 65 papers on the biological accumulation of ENMs under a range of ecologically relevant exposure conditions in water, soil or sediment with the focus on quantitative comparison among these existing studies. We found that daphnid, fish, and earthworm are the most commonly studied ecological receptors. Current evidence suggests that ENM accumulation level is generally low in fish and earthworms with logarithmic bioconcentration concentration factor and biota-sediment accumulation factor ranging from 0.85–3.43 (L kg−1) and −2.21–0.4 (kg kg−1), respectively. ENMs accumulated in organisms at the lower trophic level can transfer to higher trophic level animals with the occurrence of biomagnification varying depending on the specific food chain studied. We conclude the review by identifying the challenges and knowledge gaps and propose paths forward.

Fullerene nanoparticles exhibit greater retention in freshwater sediment than in model porous media

Increasing production and use of fullerene-based nanomaterials underscore the need to determine their mobility in environmental transport pathways and potential ecological exposures. This study investigated the transport of two fullerenes (i.e., aqu/C(60) and water-soluble C(60) pyrrolidine tris-acid [C(60) PTA]) in columns packed with model porous media (Iota quartz and Ottawa sand) and a sediment from Call's creek under saturated and unsaturated steady-state flows. The fullerenes had the least retention in Iota quartz, and the greatest retention in the sediment at near neutral pH, correlating with the degree of grain surface chemical heterogeneity (e.g., amorphous Al hydroxides concentration increasing in the order of Iota quartz<Ottawa sand<sediment). Surface roughness was elucidated as another important factor responsible for the greatest fullerene retention in the sediment. In accordance with the XDLVO energy calculations, C(60) PTA was less retained than aqu/C(60) at near neutral pH, due to its greater hydrophilicity measured by tolune-water partition coefficient, as well as smaller particle sizes revealed by atomic force microscopy. Fullerene retention exhibited a strong dependency on solution pH that could be explained partly by the pH-dependent surface charge of fullerenes and grain surface, and partly by increased hydrophobicity of C(60) PTA when solution pH approaches its isoelectric point (IEP). Finally, fullerene retention was enhanced in unsaturated media, implying that fullerenes may be more attenuated in the vadose zone than in groundwater.

Beyond nC60: strategies for identification of transformation products of fullerene oxidation in aquatic and biological samples

Owing to their exceptional properties and versatility, fullerenes are in widespread use for numerous applications. Increased production and use of fullerenes will inevitably result in accelerated environmental release. However, study of the occurrence, fate, and transport of fullerenes in the environment is complicated because a variety of surface modifications can occur as a result of either intentional functionalization or natural processes. To gain a better understanding of the effect and risk of fullerenes on environmental health, it is necessary to acquire reliable data on the parent compounds and their congeners. Whereas currently established quantification methods generally focus on analysis of unmodified fullerenes, we discuss in this review the occurrence and analysis of oxidized fullerene congeners (i.e., their corresponding epoxides and polyhydroxylated derivatives) in the environment and in biological specimens. We present possible strategies for detection and quantification of parent nanomaterials and their various derivatives.

Production and consumption of reactive oxygen species by fullerenes

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are one of the most important intermediates in chemical, photochemical, and biological processes. To understand the environmental exposure and toxicity of fullerenes better, the production and consumption of ROS (singlet oxygen, superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, and hydroxyl radicals) by Buckminster fullerene (C(60) ) and fullerenol were investigated in aqueous systems. Fullerenol exhibits higher photoproduction efficiency of singlet oxygen and superoxide than aqueous suspensions of C(60) aggregates (aqu/nC(60) ), and this higher efficiency results in higher steady-state concentrations of these two ROS. Transmission electron microscopy indicates that the C(60) molecules in aqu/nC(60) are much more closely packed than the C(60) cages in fullerenol. These observations provide additional evidence that the lower ROS production efficiency of aqu/nC(60) is attributable primarily to efficient self-quenching of C(60) triplet states. Production of singlet oxygen by aqu/nC(60) is accelerated by increasing oxygen concentration and in part is sensitized by fluorescent photoproducts that accumulate during irradiation. The fullerenes react slowly with singlet oxygen (second-order rate constant <4 × 10(5)  M(-1)  s(-1) ), but react rapidly with hydroxyl radicals (second-order rate constants of 5.4 × 10(9) and 4 × 10(8)  M(-1)  s(-1) for aqu/nC(60) and fullerenol, respectively). These results show that environmental conditions, including light exposure and oxygen concentration, have the potential to impact the generation of toxic ROS by fullerenes.

The primacy of physicochemical characterization of nanomaterials for reliable toxicity assessment: a review of the zebrafish nanotoxicology model

Engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) have become increasingly prevalent in the past two decades in academic, medical, commercial, and industrial settings. The unique properties imbued with nanoparticles, as the physiochemical properties change from the bulk material to the surface atoms, present unique and often challenging characteristics that larger macromolecules do not possess. While nanoparticle characteristics are indeed exciting for unique chemistries, surface properties, and diverse applications, reports of toxicity and environmental impacts have tempered this enthusiasm and given cause for an exponential increase for concomitant nanotoxicology assessment. Currently, nanotoxicology is a steadily growing with new literature and studies being published more frequently than ever before; however, the literature reveals clear, inconsistent trends in nanotoxicological assessment. At the heart of this issue are several key problems including the lack of validated testing protocols and models, further compounded by inadequate physicochemical characterization of the nanomaterials in question and the seminal feedback loop of chemistry to biology back to chemistry. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) are emerging as a strong nanotoxicity model of choice for ease of use, optical transparency, cost, and high degree of genomic homology to humans. This review attempts to amass all contemporary nanotoxicology studies done with the zebrafish and present as much relevant information on physicochemical characteristics as possible. While this report is primarily a physicochemical summary of nanotoxicity studies, we wish to strongly emphasize that for the proper evolution of nanotoxicology, there must be a strong marriage between the physical and biological sciences. More often than not, nanotoxicology studies are reported by groups dominated by one discipline or the other. Regardless of the starting point, nanotoxicology must be seen as an iterative process between chemistry and biology. It is our sincere hope that the future will introduce a paradigm shift in the approach to nanotoxicology with multidisciplinary groups for data analysis to produce predictive and correlative models for the end goal of rapid preclinical development of new therapeutics into the clinic or insertion into environmental protection.

Polyhydroxy fullerenes (fullerols or fullerenols): beneficial effects on growth and lifespan in diverse biological models

Recent toxicological studies on carbon nanomaterials, including fullerenes, have led to concerns about their safety. Functionalized fullerenes, such as polyhydroxy fullerenes (PHF, fullerols, or fullerenols), have attracted particular attention due to their water solubility and toxicity. Here, we report surprisingly beneficial and/or specific effects of PHF on model organisms representing four kingdoms, including the green algae Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata, the plant Arabidopsis thaliana, the fungus Aspergillus niger, and the invertebrate Ceriodaphnia dubia. The results showed that PHF had no acute or chronic negative effects on the freshwater organisms. Conversely, PHF could surprisingly increase the algal culture density over controls at higher concentrations (i.e., 72% increase by 1 and 5 mg/L of PHF) and extend the lifespan and stimulate the reproduction of Daphnia (e.g. about 38% by 20 mg/L of PHF). We also show that at certain PHF concentrations fungal growth can be enhanced and Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings exhibit longer hypocotyls, while other complex physiological processes remain unaffected. These findings may open new research fields in the potential applications of PHF, e.g., in biofuel production and aquaculture. These results will form the basis of further research into the mechanisms of growth stimulation and life extension by PHF.

Fullerenol-based electroactive artificial muscles utilizing biocompatible polyetherimide

Two essential functional requirements for electroactive artificial muscles, which can be used for biomedical active devices, are biocompatibility and sufficient range of motion. Fullerenol nanoparticles and their derivatives have been validated as potential candidates to be used for nanobiomaterials and biomedical applications because of their excellent proton conductivity, hydrophilicity, and biocompatibility. We developed fullerenol-based electroactive artificial muscles utilizing biocompatible polyetherimide. By using a solvent recasting method, present ionic networking membranes have been successfully synthesized with homogeneous dispersion of polyhydroxylated fullerene (PHF) nanoparticles into a sulfonated polyetherimide (SPEI) matrix. In comparison with pure SPEI membranes, the PHF-SPEI nanocomposite membranes show much higher water uptake and proton conductivity, which are both essential characteristics for high-performance ionic polymer actuators. The developed PHF-SPEI actuator shows over three times larger motion ranges and two times higher blocking forces than the pure SPEI actuator. The excellent biocompatibility of PHF and SPEI makes these actuators promising candidate materials for biomedical devices such as active stents and catheters.

Photochemistry of aqueous C₆₀ clusters: wavelength dependency and product characterization

To construct accurate risk assessment models for engineered nanomaterials, there is urgent need for information on the reactivity (or conversely, persistence) and transformation pathways of these materials in the natural environment. As an important step toward addressing this issue, we have characterized the products formed when aqueous C(60) clusters (nC(60)) are exposed to natural sunlight and also have assessed the wavelengths primarily responsible for phototransformation. Long-wavelength light (λ ≥ 400 nm) isolated from sunlight, was shown to be important in both the phototransformation of nC(60) and in the production of (1)O(2). The significance of visible light in mediating the phototransformation of nC(60) was supported by additional experiments with monochromatic light in which the apparent quantum yield at 436 nm (Φ(436 nm) = (2.08 ± 0.08) × 10(-5)) was comparable to that at 366 nm (Φ(366 nm) = (2.02 ± 0.07) × 10(-5)). LDI-TOF mass spectrometry indicated that most of the photoproducts formed after 947 h of irradiation in natural sunlight retain a 60 atom carbon structure. A combination of (13)C NMR analysis of (13)C-enriched nC(60), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and FTIR indicated that photoproducts have olefinic carbon atoms as well as a variety of oxygen-containing functional groups, including vinyl ether and carbonyl or carboxyl groups, whose presence destroys the native π-electron system of C(60). Thus, the photoreactivity of nC(60) in sunlight leads to the formation of water-soluble C(60) derivatives.

Characterizing photochemical transformation of aqueous nC60 under environmentally relevant conditions

Engineered nanomaterials may undergo transformation upon interactions with various environmental factors. In this study, photochemical transformation of aqueous nC60 was investigated under UVA irradiation. nC60 underwent photochemical transformation in the presence of dissolved O2, resulting in surface oxygenation and hydroxylation as demonstrated by XPS and ATR-FTIR analyses. The reaction followed a pseudo-first order rate law with the apparent reaction rate constant of 2.2 x 10(-2) h(-1). However, the core of the nanoparticles remained intact over 21 days of irradiation. Although no mineralization or dissolution of nC60 was observed, experiments using fullerol as a reference fullerene derivative suggested likely dissolution and partial mineralization of nC60 under long-term UVA exposure. Aquatic humic acid reduced nC60 transformation kinetics presumably due to scavenging of reactive oxygen species. Results from this study imply that photochemical transformation is an important factor controlling nC60 physical and chemical properties as well as its fate and transport in the natural aqueous environment. In addition, changes in nC60 surface chemistry drastically reduced C60 extraction efficiency by toluene, suggesting that the existing analytical method for C60 may not be applicable to environmental samples.