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Meng FQ, Feng XJ, Wang WH, Bao M. Synthesis of 5-vinyl-2-norbornene through Diels–Alder reaction of cyclopentadiene with 1,3-butadiene in supercritical carbon dioxide. CHINESE CHEM LETT 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cclet.2016.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Pollet P, Hart RJ, Eckert CA, Liotta CL. Organic aqueous tunable solvents (OATS): a vehicle for coupling reactions and separations. Acc Chem Res 2010; 43:1237-45. [PMID: 20565064 DOI: 10.1021/ar100036j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
In laboratory-based chemical synthesis, the choice of the solvent and the means of product purification are rarely determined by cost or environmental impact considerations. When a reaction is scaled up for industrial applications, however, these choices are critical: the separation of product from the solvent, starting materials, and byproduct usually constitutes 60-80% of the overall cost of a process. In response, researchers have developed solvents and solvent-handling methods to optimize both the reaction and the subsequent separation steps on the manufacturing scale. These include "switchable" solvents, which are designed so that their physical properties can be changed abruptly, as well as "tunable" solvents, wherein the solvent's properties change continuously through the application of an external stimulus. In this Account, we describe the organic aqueous tunable solvent (OATS) system, examining two instructive and successful areas of application of OATS as well as its clear potential for further refinement. OATS systems address the limitations of biphasic processes by optimizing reactions and separations simultaneously. The reaction is performed homogeneously in a miscible aqueous-organic solvent mixture, such as water-tetrahydrofuran (THF). The efficient product separation is conducted heterogeneously by the simple addition of modest pressures of CO(2) (50-60 bar) to the system. Under these conditions, the water-THF phase splits into two relatively immiscible phases: the organic THF phase contains the hydrophobic product, and the aqueous phase contains the hydrophilic catalyst. We take advantage of the unique properties of OATS to develop environmentally benign and cost-competitive processes relevant in industrial applications. Specifically, we describe the use of OATS for optimizing the reaction, separation, design, and recycling of (i) Rh-catalyzed hydroformylation of olefins such as 1-octene and (ii) enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis of 2-phenylacetate. We discuss the advantages of these OATS systems over more traditional processes. We also consider future directions that can be taken with these proven systems as well as related innovations that have recently been reported, including the use of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) as a tunable adjunct in the solvent and the substitution of propane for CO(2) as the external stimulus. OATS systems in fact represent the ultimate goal for a sustainable process, because in an idealized setup there is only reactant coming in and product going out; in principle, there is no waste stream.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela Pollet
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332
- Specialty Separations Center, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332
| | - Ryan J. Hart
- Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332
| | - Charles A. Eckert
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332
- Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332
- Specialty Separations Center, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332
| | - Charles. L. Liotta
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332
- Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332
- Specialty Separations Center, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332
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Hart R, Pollet P, Hahne DJ, John E, Llopis-Mestre V, Blasucci V, Huttenhower H, Leitner W, Eckert CA, Liotta CL. Benign coupling of reactions and separations with reversible ionic liquids. Tetrahedron 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2009.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Ford JW, Lu J, Liotta CL, Eckert CA. Solvent Effects on the Kinetics of a Diels−Alder Reaction in Gas-Expanded Liquids. Ind Eng Chem Res 2007. [DOI: 10.1021/ie070618i] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jackson W. Ford
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Specialty Separations Center, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0100
| | - Jie Lu
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Specialty Separations Center, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0100
| | - Charles L. Liotta
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Specialty Separations Center, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0100
| | - Charles A. Eckert
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Specialty Separations Center, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0100
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Abbott AP, Hope EG, Palmer DJ. Effect of Solutes on the Viscosity of Supercritical Solutions. J Phys Chem B 2007; 111:8114-8. [PMID: 17592864 DOI: 10.1021/jp066620p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
This study shows that solutes can impart significant structure to supercritical solutions, resulting in unexpectedly high solution viscosity at pressures close to the critical value. The viscosity passes through a minimum as the pressure is increased, and this is accounted for by a solvation of the solutes leading to a decrease in solute-solute interactions. At high pressure, the solution viscosity is similar to that of the pure solvent as solvent-solvent interactions dominate. The increase in relative viscosity is modeled using a modified Dole-Jones equation, and it is shown that the change in relative viscosity is related to the volume fraction occupied by the solute. A general model is presented for simple solutes whereby the viscosity of a supercritical solution can be calculated from the molecular volume of the solute and the viscosity of the pure fluid. The higher than expected viscosity observed at low pressures is used to explain the variation of reaction rate constant with pressure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew P Abbott
- Chemistry Department, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 7RH, U.K.
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Abbott AP, Corr S, Durling NE, Hope EG. Pressure Effects on Friedel-Crafts Alkylation Reactions in Supercritical Difluoromethane. Chemphyschem 2005; 6:466-72. [PMID: 15799471 DOI: 10.1002/cphc.200400363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Dielectrometry is used as a novel technique for following the rate of a Friedel-Crafts alkylation reaction in supercritical (sc) difluoromethane. Although the process was not optimized, good product yields were obtained and reaction rates were found to be larger than in CO2 at comparable conditions. The reaction order is determined using the initial rate method and the reaction is shown to be first-order with respect to both anisole and t-butyl chloride. The reaction rate constant is unaffected by pressures above 120 bar but close to the critical pressure the value decreases with increasing pressure. It is also shown that the product distribution for the alkylation of anisole shows significant pressure dependence with substitution at the ortho-position being favored at lower pressures, which is ascribed to hydrogen bonding. This pressure dependency is not observed in sc CO2 or using toluene as a substrate, which supports the idea that hydrogen bonding may be important in the reaction mechanism. The effect of the different reagents and temperature on the rate of the alkylation reaction was also determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew P Abbott
- Chemistry Department, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK.
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Doyle MP, Valenzuela M, Huang P. Asymmetric hetero-Diels-Alder reaction catalyzed by dirhodium(II) carboxamidates. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004; 101:5391-5. [PMID: 15060277 PMCID: PMC397391 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0307025101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2003] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Chiral dirhodium(II) carboxamidates are highly efficient catalysts for reactions between a variety of aldehydes and activated dienes. Catalyst loadings as low at 0.01 mol % have been realized with enantioselectivities up to 97%. Kinetic investigations reveal a pronounced electronic influence on the rate of the hetero-Diels-Alder reaction with a Hammett rho value of +1.9 (versus sigma(+)). Inhibition of the catalyst by reactant aldehyde is apparent, but reactions show first-order dependence on aldehyde and diene, and there is a variable dependence on catalyst.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Doyle
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA.
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Qian J, Timko MT, Allen AJ, Russell CJ, Winnik B, Buckley B, Steinfeld JI, Tester JW. Solvophobic Acceleration of Diels−Alder Reactions in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide. J Am Chem Soc 2004; 126:5465-74. [PMID: 15113218 DOI: 10.1021/ja030620a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
The rate of the Diels-Alder reaction between N-ethylmaleimide and 9-hydroxymethylanthracene in supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO(2)) was determined by following the disappearance of 9-hydroxymethylanthracene with in situ UV/vis absorption spectroscopy. The reaction conditions were 45-75 degrees C and 90-190 bar, which correspond to fluid densities (based on pure carbon dioxide) ranging between approximately 340 and 730 kg m(-3). The measured reaction rate at low scCO(2) fluid densities was nearly 25x faster than that reported in acetonitrile at the same temperature (45 degrees C). An inverse relationship between reaction rate and fluid density/pressure was observed at all temperatures in scCO(2). The apparent activation volumes were large and positive (350 cm(3) mol(-1)) and only a weak function of reduced temperature. A solvophobic mechanism analogous to those observed in conventional solvents is postulated to describe (a) the rate acceleration observed for this reaction in scCO(2) relative to that in acetonitrile, (b) the observed relationship between reaction rate and pressure/temperature/density, and (c) the large, positive activation volumes. Solubility measurements in scCO(2), rate measurements in conventional solvents, and an empirical correlation are used to support this theory. Our results advance the general understanding of reactivity in supercritical fluids and provide a rationale for selecting reactions which can be accelerated when conducted in scCO(2).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Qian
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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Glebov EM, Krishtopa LG, Stepanov V, Krasnoperov LN. Kinetics of a Diels−Alder Reaction of Maleic Anhydride and Isoprene in Supercritical CO2. J Phys Chem A 2001. [DOI: 10.1021/jp011548a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Evgeni M. Glebov
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Chemistry and Environmental Science, New Jersey Institute of Technology, University Heights, Newark, New Jersey 07102
| | - Larisa G. Krishtopa
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Chemistry and Environmental Science, New Jersey Institute of Technology, University Heights, Newark, New Jersey 07102
| | - Victor Stepanov
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Chemistry and Environmental Science, New Jersey Institute of Technology, University Heights, Newark, New Jersey 07102
| | - Lev N. Krasnoperov
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Chemistry and Environmental Science, New Jersey Institute of Technology, University Heights, Newark, New Jersey 07102
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