1
|
Chen H, Lin T, Wang P, Wang Y, Wei W, Zhu S. A novel solar-activated chlorine dioxide process for atrazine degradation in drinking water. WATER RESEARCH 2023; 239:120056. [PMID: 37167851 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.120056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Revised: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
New technologies using advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) with low energy-input to address the presence of micro-contaminants and the formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) are required for drinking water safety. In this work, the activation of chlorine dioxide with solar (solar/ClO2 process), a type of renewable and inexhaustible energy, was developed to degrade atrazine (ATZ) and control the formation of DBPs. Results revealed that solar/ClO2 process was effective in degrading ATZ. Hydroxyl radicals (•OH) and chlorine radicals (Cl•) produced in solar/ClO2 process were found to be the predominant agents for ATZ degradation with contribution rates of 55.9% and 44.1%, respectively, based on radical quenching tests and competition kinetics. Reaction pH did not affect the total amount of Cl• and •OH (i.e., [•OH]exp) and [Cl•]exp), while the conversion of Cl• to •OH was responsible for the depressed ATZ degradation efficiency with the increasing pH in solar/ClO2 process. The presence of bicarbonate (HCO3-), chloride (Cl-) and humic acid (HA) retarded the ATZ degradation mainly due to they decreased [•OH]exp) and [Cl•]exp. Using the UPLC-MS/MS analysis, six degradation intermediates of ATZ were tentatively identified, and the three-stage degradation pathway as well as the stepwise detoxification of ATZ were confirmed by the condensed Fukui function (CFF) calculation and ECOSAR prediction. Applying solar/ClO2 as a pretreatment of HA-containing water, the formation of DBPs during post-chlorination was significantly reduced. However, the presence of ATZ during solar/ClO2 pretreatment of HA significantly lowered the control efficiency of DBPs. The major degradation intermediate, i.e., deethyldeisopropylhydroxyatrazine (DEIHA), of ATZ could incorporate into HA and therefore providing more precursors for DBPs. The acute toxicity recorded by the behavior of zebrafish larvae revealed that using chloramine instead of chlorine downstream the solar/ClO2 pretreatment of ATZ and HA could significantly reduce the acute toxicity by decreasing the formation of total DBPs. This study demonstrated the great potential of applying solar/ClO2 process followed by chloramination to simultaneously degrade micro-contaminants and reduce DBPs formation as well as toxic risk in practical applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Han Chen
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lakes, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, PR China; College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, PR China
| | - Tao Lin
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lakes, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, PR China; College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, PR China.
| | - Peifang Wang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lakes, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, PR China; College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, PR China.
| | - Yuchen Wang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lakes, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, PR China; College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, PR China
| | - Wei Wei
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Anhui Jianzhu University, Hefei 230601, PR China
| | - Shuguang Zhu
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Anhui Jianzhu University, Hefei 230601, PR China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Chuang YH, Wu KL, Lin WC, Shi HJ. Photolysis of Chlorine Dioxide under UVA Irradiation: Radical Formation, Application in Treating Micropollutants, Formation of Disinfection Byproducts, and Toxicity under Scenarios Relevant to Potable Reuse and Drinking Water. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:2593-2604. [PMID: 35025487 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c05707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Conversion of potable reuse water utilities and drinking water utilities from a low-pressure UV/H2O2 (LPUV/H2O2) advanced oxidation process (AOP) to alternative AOPs in which oxidants can effectively absorb photons and rapidly generate radicals has attracted great interest. Herein, we propose a novel UVA/ClO2 AOP for different water treatment scenarios because of reduced photon absorption by the background matrix and high molar absorptivity for ClO2 at UVA wavelengths. While the photolysis of ClO2 produces •Cl + O2 or •ClO + O(3P) via distinct product channels, we determined the parameters needed to accurately model the loss of oxidants and the formation of byproducts and combined a kinetic model with experimental data to determine quantum yields (Φ). Modeling incorporating the optimized Φ simultaneously predicted oxidant loss and the formation of major products -HOCl, Cl-, and ClO3-. We also systematically investigated the removal of three contaminants exhibiting different radical reactivities, the formation of 35 regulated and unregulated halogenated disinfection byproducts (DBPs), DBP-associated toxicity, and N-acetylcysteine thiol reactivity in synthetic or authentic RO permeates/surface waters treated by different AOPs. The kinetic model developed in this study was used to optimize operating conditions to control undesired products and improve contaminant removal efficiency. The results indicate that UVA/ClO2 can outperform LPUV/H2O2 in terms of electrical energy per order of contaminant degradation, disinfection byproduct formation, and toxicity indices.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Hsueh Chuang
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, 1001 University Rd., Hsinchu City 30010, Taiwan
| | - Kai-Lin Wu
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, 1001 University Rd., Hsinchu City 30010, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Chun Lin
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, 1001 University Rd., Hsinchu City 30010, Taiwan
| | - Hong-Jia Shi
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, 1001 University Rd., Hsinchu City 30010, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Basis Set Effects in the Description of the Cl-O Bond in ClO and XClO/ClOX Isomers (X = H, O, and Cl) Using DFT and CCSD(T) Methods. J CHEM-NY 2019. [DOI: 10.1155/2019/4057848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The performance of a group of density functional methods of progressive complexity for the description of the ClO bond in a series of chlorine oxides was investigated. The simplest ClO radical species and the two isomeric structures XClO/ClOX for each X = H, Cl, and O were studied using the PW91, TPSS, B3LYP, PBE0, M06, M06-2X, BMK, and B2PLYP functionals. Geometry optimizations and reaction enthalpies and enthalpies of formation for each species were calculated using Pople basis sets and the (aug)-cc-pVnZ Dunning sets, with n = D, T, Q, 5, and 6. For the calculation of enthalpies of formation, atomization and isodesmic reactions were employed. Both the precision of the methods with respect to the increase of the basis sets, as well as their accuracy, were gauged by comparing the results with the more accurate CCSD(T) calculations, performed using the same basis sets as for the DFT methods. The results obtained employing composite chemical methods (G4, CBS-QB3, and W1BD) were also used for the comparisons, as well as the experimental results when they are available. The results obtained show that error compensation is the key for successful description of molecular properties (geometries and energies) by carefully selecting the method and basis sets. In general, expansion of the one-electron basis set to the limit of completeness does not improve results at the DFT level, but just the opposite. The enthalpies of formation calculated at the CCSD(T)/aug-cc-pV6Z for the species considered are generally in agreement with experimental determinations and the most accurate theoretical values. Different sources of error in the calculations are discussed in detail.
Collapse
|
4
|
Computational study on the O- and Cl-loss dissociations of ClOO. Chem Phys 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphys.2018.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
|
5
|
Huo Y, Wang C, Lu J, Hu S, Li X, Zhang L. A novel trimeric Zn (II) complex based on 8-hydroxyquinoline with trifluoromethylbenzene group: Synthesis, crystal structure, photophysical properties and DNA binding. J Mol Struct 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2015.06.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
|
6
|
Patterson JD, Reid PJ. Time-Resolved Infrared Absorption Studies of the Solvent-Dependent Photochemistry of ClNO. J Phys Chem B 2012; 116:10437-43. [DOI: 10.1021/jp211697r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joshua D. Patterson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington
98195, United States
| | - Philip J. Reid
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington
98195, United States
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Sun Y, Sun M. Theoretical study of the mechanism for the ClOO + NO reaction on the singlet potential energy surface. Struct Chem 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s11224-011-9845-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
8
|
Hayes SC, Wallace PM, Bolinger JC, Reid PJ. Investigating the phase-dependent photochemical reaction dynamics of chlorine dioxide using resonance Raman spectroscopy. INT REV PHYS CHEM 2010. [DOI: 10.1080/01442350210156024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
|
9
|
Bixby TJ, Bolinger JC, Patterson JD, Reid PJ. Femtosecond pump-probe studies of actinic-wavelength dependence in aqueous chlorine dioxide photochemistry. J Chem Phys 2009; 130:154503. [PMID: 19388755 DOI: 10.1063/1.3116108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The actinic or photolysis-wavelength dependence of aqueous chlorine dioxide (OClO) photochemistry is investigated using femtosecond pump-probe spectroscopy. Following photoexcitation at 310, 335, and 410 nm the photoinduced evolution in optical density is measured from the UV to the near IR. Analysis of the optical-density evolution illustrates that the quantum yield for atomic chlorine production (Phi(Cl)) increases with actinic energy, with Phi(Cl)=0.16+/-0.02 for 410 nm excitation and increasing to 0.25+/-0.01 and 0.54+/-0.10 for 335 and 310 nm excitations, respectively. Consistent with previous studies, the production of Cl occurs through two channels, with one channel corresponding to prompt (<5 ps) Cl formation and the other corresponding to the thermal decomposition of ClOO formed by OClO photoisomerization. The partitioning between Cl production channels is dependent on actinic energy, with prompt Cl production enhanced with an increase in actinic energy. Limited evidence is found for enhanced ClO production with an increase in actinic energy. Stimulated emission and excited-state absorption features associated with OClO populating the optically prepared (2)A(2) surface decrease with an increase in actinic energy suggesting that the excited-state decay dynamics are also actinic energy dependent. The studies presented here provide detailed information on the actinic-wavelength dependence of OClO photochemistry in aqueous solution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Teresa J Bixby
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, P.O. Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Bixby TJ, Patterson JD, Reid PJ. Femtosecond TRIR Studies of ClNO Photochemistry in Solution: Evidence for Photoisomerization and Geminate Recombination. J Phys Chem A 2009; 113:3886-94. [DOI: 10.1021/jp8100283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Teresa J. Bixby
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Joshua D. Patterson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Philip J. Reid
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Petersen C, Thøgersen J, Knak Jensen S, Keiding SR, Sassi P. Solvent response to solute photo-dissociation. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2008; 10:990-5. [DOI: 10.1039/b711466d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
|
12
|
Gunnerson KN, Brooksby C, Prezhdo OV, Reid PJ. Nonequilibrium versus equilibrium molecular dynamics studies of solvation dynamics after photoexcitation of OClO. J Chem Phys 2007; 127:164510. [DOI: 10.1063/1.2790422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
|
13
|
Cooksey CC, Reid PJ. The Phase-dependent Photochemical Reaction Dynamics of Halooxides and Nitrosyl Halides¶. Photochem Photobiol 2007. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2004.tb00103.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
|
14
|
Cooksey CC, Johnson KJ, Reid PJ. Femtosecond Pump−Probe Studies of Nitrosyl Chloride Photochemistry in Solution. J Phys Chem A 2006; 110:8613-22. [PMID: 16836421 DOI: 10.1021/jp062069k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We present a femtosecond pump-probe study of the primary events of nitrosyl chloride (ClNO) photochemistry in solution. Following 266 nm photolysis, the resulting evolution in optical density is measured for ClNO dissolved in acetonitrile, chloroform, and dichloromethane. The results demonstrate that photolysis results in the production of a photoproduct that has an absorption band maximum at 295 nm in acetonitrile and 330 nm in chloroform and dichloromethane. To determine the extent of Cl production, comparative photochemical studies of methyl hypochlorite (MeOCl) and ClNO are performed. Photolysis of MeOCl in solution results in the production of the Cl:solvent charge-transfer complex; therefore, a comparison of the spectral evolution observed following MeOCl and ClNO photolysis under identical photolysis conditions is performed to determine the extent of Cl production following ClNO photolysis. We find that similar to the gas-phase photochemistry, Cl and NO formation is the dominant photochemical channel in acetonitrile. However, the photochemistry in chloroform and dichloromethane is more complex, with a second product formed in addition to Cl and NO. It is proposed that in these solvents photoisomerization also occurs, resulting in the production of ClON. The results presented here represent the first detailed examination of the solution phase photochemistry of ClNO.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Catherine C Cooksey
- Box 351700, Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Reduced mechanism for the 366nm chlorine dioxide photodecomposition in N2-saturated aqueous solutions. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2004.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
|
16
|
Cooksey CC, Reid PJ. The Phase-dependent Photochemical Reaction Dynamics of Halooxides and Nitrosyl Halides¶. Photochem Photobiol 2004. [DOI: 10.1562/0031-8655(2004)080<0386:tpprdo>2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
17
|
Brooksby C, Prezhdo OV, Reid PJ. Molecular dynamics study of the weakly solvent dependent relaxation dynamics following chlorine dioxide photoexcitation. J Chem Phys 2003. [DOI: 10.1063/1.1614203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
|
18
|
Cooksey CC, Reid PJ. Femtosecond Pump−Probe Studies of Dichlorine Monoxide in Solution. J Phys Chem A 2003. [DOI: 10.1021/jp030213l] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Catherine C. Cooksey
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Philip J. Reid
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Wallace PM, Bolinger JC, Hayes SC, Reid PJ. On the actinic wavelength dependence of OClO photochemistry in solution. J Chem Phys 2003. [DOI: 10.1063/1.1531613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
|
20
|
Tarnovsky AN, Wall M, Gustafsson M, Lascoux N, Sundström V, Åkesson E. Ultrafast Study of the Photodissociation of Bromoiodomethane in Acetonitrile upon 266 nm Excitation. J Phys Chem A 2002. [DOI: 10.1021/jp014306j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Magnus Wall
- Department of Chemical Physics, Lund University, Box 124, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden
| | - Magnus Gustafsson
- Department of Chemical Physics, Lund University, Box 124, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden
| | - Noelle Lascoux
- Department of Chemical Physics, Lund University, Box 124, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden
| | - Villy Sundström
- Department of Chemical Physics, Lund University, Box 124, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden
| | - Eva Åkesson
- Department of Chemical Physics, Lund University, Box 124, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Larsen J, Madsen D, Poulsen JA, Poulsen TD, Keiding SR, Thøgersen J. The photoisomerization of aqueous ICN studied by subpicosecond transient absorption spectroscopy. J Chem Phys 2002. [DOI: 10.1063/1.1467897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
|
22
|
Reid PJ. Investigating the Phase-Dependent Reactivity of Chlorine Dioxide Using Resonance Raman Spectroscopy. J Phys Chem A 2002. [DOI: 10.1021/jp013491y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Philip J. Reid
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Box 351700, Seattle, Washington 98195
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Hayes SC, Thomsen CL, Reid PJ. The production and decay kinetics of ClOO in water and freon-11: A time-resolved resonance raman study. J Chem Phys 2001. [DOI: 10.1063/1.1418733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
|
24
|
Hayes SC, Cooksey CC, Wallace PM, Reid PJ. Femtosecond UV Pump/Near-IR Probe Studies of the Solvent-Dependent Excited-State Decay Dynamics of Chlorine Dioxide. J Phys Chem A 2001. [DOI: 10.1021/jp011831+] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
25
|
Reid PJ. Understanding the phase-dependent reactivity of chlorine dioxide using resonance Raman spectroscopy. Acc Chem Res 2001; 34:691-8. [PMID: 11560468 DOI: 10.1021/ar010064u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Progress in understanding the phase-dependent reactivity of chlorine dioxide (OClO) is outlined. Resonance Raman intensity analysis studies of gaseous and solution-phase OClO are presented which demonstrate that the optically prepared excited state undergoes significant modification in solution. In addition, time-resolved resonance Raman studies are presented which demonstrate that geminate recombination of the primary photoproducts, resulting in the re-formation of ground-state OClO, dominates the photochemical reaction dynamics in solution. The current picture of aqueous OClO photochemistry derived from these studies is discussed, and future directions of investigation are outlined.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P J Reid
- Department of Chemistry, Box 351700, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Poulsen J, Nymand TM, Keiding SR. Asymmetric stretch vibrational energy relaxation of OClO in liquid water. Chem Phys Lett 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/s0009-2614(01)00745-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
|
27
|
Foster CE, Barham BP, Reid PJ. Resonance Raman intensity analysis of chlorine dioxide dissolved in chloroform: The role of nonpolar solvation. J Chem Phys 2001. [DOI: 10.1063/1.1362297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
|