Evidence for the Intervention of Different C−H Activating Intermediates in the Irradiation of (η5-C5Me5)(PMe3)IrH2 and the Reaction of (η5-C5Me5)(PMe3)Ir(H)(Cl) with Strong Base. Detection and Spectroscopic Characterization of (η5-C5Me5)(PMe3)Ir(Li)(Cl), an Intermediate in the Dehydrohalogenation Reaction

Rollover cyclometalation pathway in rhodium catalysis: dramatic NHC effects in the C-H bond functionalization

Organometallic chelates are readily obtained upon coordination of metal species to multidentate ligands. Because of the robust structural nature, chelation frequently serves as a driving force in the molecular assembly and chemical architecture, and they are used also as an efficient catalyst in numerous reactions. Described herein is the development of a Rh(NHC) catalytic system for the hydroarylation of alkenes and alkynes with 2,2'-bipyridines (bipy) and 2,2'-biquinolines; the most representative chelating molecules. Initially generated (bipy)Rh(NHC) chelates become labile because of the strong trans-effect of N-heterocyclic carbenes, thus weakening a rhodium-pyridyl bond, which is trans to the bound NHC. Subsequent rollover cyclometalation leads to the C-H bond activation, eventually giving rise to double functionalization of chelate molecules. Density functional calculations are in good agreement with our mechanistic proposal based on the experimental data. The present study elucidated for the first time the dramatic NHC effects on the rollover cyclometalation pathway enabling highly efficient and selective bisfunctionalization of 2,2'-bipyridines and 2,2'-biquinolines.

Mechanism for C-H bond activation in ethylene in the gas phase vs. in solution - vinylic or agostic? Revisiting the case of protonated Cp*Rh(C(2)H(4))(2)

When Cp*Rh(C(2)H(4))(2)H(+) (2) is exposed to C(2)H(4) in the gas phase, inside the cell of an FT-ICR mass spectrometer, the most notable feature is the lack of any bimolecular reactivity. Collisional activation of 2 leads to ethylene loss and formation of Cp*Rh(C(2)H(4)-mu-H)(+) (3). In contrast to the reactivity of 2 in solution, ethylene dimerisation is negligible in the gas phase. Coordinatively unsaturated 3, rather than 2, is the major species in which reactivity is observed to occur. Compound 3 reacts with ethylene in three parallel processes: (a) Slow addition of ethylene to give 2; (b) rapid, intermolecular hydrogen atom exchange (monitored in separate reactions with free C(2)D(4) to give 3-d(1-5)); (c) ligand substitution of ethylene in 3. DFT calculations reproduce these observations, showing low barriers for hydrogen scrambling, high barrier to ligand loss in 2, and even higher barriers to elimination of either H(2) or ethane. Mechanistic models for the elimination and scrambling processes are discussed.

Adding a new dimension to the investigation of platinum-mediated arene C-H activation reactions using 2D NMR exchange spectroscopy. Dynamics of Pt(II) phenyl/benzene site exchange

Protonation of (N-N)PtPh(2) (1; N-N = diimine ArN=CMe-CMe=NAr with Ar = 2,6-Me(2)C(6)H(3) (a), 2,4,6-Me(3)C(6)H(2) (b), 4-Br-2,6-Me(2)C(6)H(2) (c), 3,5-Me(2)C(6)H(3) (d), and 4-CF(3)C(6)H(4) (e)) in the presence of MeCN at ambient temperature generates (N-N)Pt(Ph)(NCMe)(+) (2). At -78 degrees C, protonation of 1a yielded (N-N)PtPh(2)(H)(NCMe)(+) (3a), which produced benzene and 2a at ca. -40 degrees C. Protonation of 1a-e in CD(2)Cl(2)/Et(2)O-d(10) furnished (N-N)Pt(C(6)H(5))(eta(2)-C(6)H(6))(+) (4a-e). The pi-benzene complexes 4a-c, sterically protected at Pt, eliminate benzene at ca. 0 degree C. The sterically less protected 4d-e lose benzene already at -30 degrees C. SST and 2D EXSY NMR demonstrate that phenyl and pi-benzene ligand protons undergo exchange with concomitant symmetrization of the diimine ligand, most likely via oxidative insertion of Pt into a C-H bond of coordinated benzene. The kinetics of the exchange processes for 4a-c were probed by quantitative EXSY spectroscopy, resulting in DeltaH() of 70-72 kJ mol(-1) and DeltaS of 37-48 J K(-1) mol(-1). A large, strongly temperature-dependent H/D kinetic isotope effect (9.7 at -34 degrees C; 6.9 at -19 degrees C) was measured for the dynamic behavior of 4a versus 4a-d(10), consistent with the proposed pi-benzene C-H bond cleavage. The fact that the pi-benzene complex 4a is thermally more robust in the absence of MeCN than is the Pt(IV) hydridodiphenyl complex 3a in the presence of MeCN agrees with the notion that arene elimination from Pt(IV) hydridoaryl complexes occurs via Pt(II) pi-arene intermediates that eliminate the hydrocarbon associatively, in this case, promoted by MeCN. Compounds 1a, 1b, 1d, 2a, and 2b have been crystallographically characterized.

Halobenzenes and Ir(I): Kinetic C−H Oxidative Addition and Thermodynamic C−Hal Oxidative Addition

A (PNP)Ir fragment undergoes facile, room-temperature oxidative addition of C-H bonds in arenes and haloarenes in preference to aromatic carbon-halogen bonds. This preference, however, is determined to be kinetic in nature. Oxidative addition of C-Cl and C-Br is preferred thermodynamically. The products of the C-Cl or C-Br oxidative addition are separated from the C-H oxidative addition products by a high activation barrier and are only accessible at >100 degrees C. Of the C-H oxidative addition products of chlorobenzene, the isomer with the o-ClC6H4 ligand has the lowest energy.

Stoichiometric and Catalytic H/D Incorporation by Cationic Iridium Complexes: A Common Monohydrido-Iridium Intermediate

A mechanistic study of the stoichiometric and catalytic H/D exchange reactions involving cationic iridium complexes is presented. Strong evidence suggests that both stoichiometric and catalytic reactions proceed via a monohydrido-iridium species. Stoichiometric deuterium incorporation reactions introduce multiple deuterium atoms into the organic products when aryliridium compounds CpPMe(3)Ir(C(6)H(4)X)(OTf) (X = H, o-CH(3), m-CH(3), p-CH(3)) react with D(2). Multiple deuteration occurs at the unhindered positions (para and meta) of toluene, when X = CH(3). The multiple-deuteration pathway is suppressed in the presence of an excess of the coordinating ligand, CH(3)CN. The compound CpPMe(3)IrH(OTf) (1-OTf) is observed in low-temperature, stoichiometric experiments to support a monohydrido-iridium intermediate that is responsible for catalyzing multiple deuteration in the stoichiometric system. When paired with acetone-d(6)(), [CpPMe(3)IrH(3)][OTf] (4) catalytically deuterates a wide range of substrates with a variety of functional groups. Catalyst 4 decomposes to [CpPMe(3)Ir(eta(3)-CH(2)C(OH)CH(2))][OTf] (19) in acetone and to [CpPMe(3)IrH(CO)][OTf] (1-CO) in CH(3)OH. The catalytic H/D exchange reaction is not catalyzed by simple H(+) transfer, but instead proceeds by a reversible C-H bond activation mechanism.

A comparison of C-F and C-H bond activation by zerovalent ni and pt: a density functional study

Density functional theory indicates that oxidative addition of the C-F and C-H bonds in C6F6 and C6H6 at zerovalent nickel and platinum fragments, M(H2PCH2CH2PH2), proceeds via initial exothermic formation of an eta2-coordinated arene complex. Two distinct transition states have been located on the potential energy surface between the eta2-coordinated arene and the oxidative addition product. The first, at relatively low energy, features an eta3-coordinated arene and connects two identical eta2-arene minima, while the second leads to cleavage of the C-X bond. The absence of intermediate C-F or C-H sigma complexes observed in other systems is traced to the ability of the 14-electron metal fragment to accommodate the eta3-coordination mode in the first transition state. Oxidative addition of the C-F bond is exothermic at both nickel and platinum, but the barrier is significantly higher for the heavier element as a result of strong 5dpi-ppi repulsions in the transition state. Similar repulsive interactions lead to a relatively long Pt-F bond with a lower stretching frequency in the oxidative addition product. Activation of the C-H bond is, in contrast, exothermic only for the platinum complex. We conclude that the nickel system is better suited to selective C-F bond activation than its platinum analogue for two reasons: the strong thermodynamic preference for C-F over C-H bond activation and the relatively low kinetic barrier.

Inter- and Intramolecular Activation of Aromatic C−H Bonds by Diphosphine and Hydrido-Bridged Dinuclear Iridium Complexes

Reactions of [(Cp*Ir)2(mu-dmpm)(mu-H)2]2+ (1) with NaOtBu in aromatic solvent at room temperature give [(Cp*Ir)(H)(mu-dmpm)(mu-H)(Cp*Ir)(Ar)]+ [Ar = Ph (3), p-Tol (4a), m-Tol (4b), 2-furanyl (5a), 3-furanyl (5b)] via intermolecular aromatic C-H activation. Treatment of [(Cp*Ir)2(mu-dppm)(mu-H)2]2+ (2) with base (Et2NH) results in intramolecular C-H activation of the phenyl group in the dppm ligand to give [(Cp*Ir)(H){mu-PPh(C6H4)CH2PPh2}(mu-H)(Cp*Ir)]+ (6). The structures of 3, 5a, and 6 have been determined by X-ray diffraction methods.

Aromatic vs aliphatic C-H bond activation by rhodium(I) as a function of agostic interactions: catalytic H/D exchange between olefins and methanol or water

The aryl-PC type ligand 3, benzyl(di-tert-butyl)phosphane, reacts with [Rh(coe)(2)(solv)(n)()]BF(4) (coe = cyclooctene, solv = solvent), producing the C-H activated complexes 4a-c (solv = (a). acetone, (b). THF, (c). methanol). Complexes 4a-c undergo reversible arene C-H activation (observed by NMR spin saturation transfer experiments, SST) and H/D exchange into the hydride and aryl ortho-H with ROD (R = D, Me). They also promote catalytic H/D exchange into the vinylic C-H bond of olefins, with deuterated methanol or water utilized as D-donors. Unexpectedly, complex 2, based on the benzyl-PC type ligand 1 (analogous to 3), di-tert-butyl(2,4,6-trimethylbenzyl)phosphane, shows a very different reversible C-H activation pattern as observed by SST. It is not active in H/D exchange with ROD and in catalytic H/D exchange with olefins. To clarify our observations regarding C-H activation/reductive elimination in both PC-Rh systems, density functional theory (DFT) calculations were performed. Both nucleophilic (oxidative addition) and electrophilic (H/D exchange) C-H activation proceed through eta(2)-C,H agostic intermediates. In the aryl-PC system the agostic interaction causes C-H bond acidity sufficient for the H/D exchange with water or methanol, which is not the case in the benzyl PC-Rh system. In the latter system the C-H coordination pattern of the methyl controls the reversible C-H oxidative addition leading to energetically different C-H activation processes, in accordance with the experimental observations.

Normal and inverse primary kinetic deuterium isotope effects for C-H bond reductive elimination and oxidative addition reactions of molybdenocene and tungstenocene complexes: evidence for benzene sigma-complex intermediates

The overall reductive elimination of RH from the ansa-molybdenocene and -tungstenocene complexes [Me(2)Si(C(5)Me(4))(2)]Mo(Ph)H and [Me(2)Si(C(5)Me(4))(2)]W(R)H (R = Me, Ph) is characterized by an inverse primary kinetic isotope effect (KIE) for the tungsten system but a normal KIE for the molybdenum system. Oxidative addition of PhH to [[Me(2)Si(C(5)Me(4))(2)]M] also differs for the two systems, with the molybdenum system exhibiting a substantial intermolecular KIE, while no effect is observed for the tungsten system. These differences in KIEs indicate a significant difference in the reactivity of the hydrocarbon adducts [Me(2)Si(C(5)Me(4))(2)]M(RH) for the molybdenum and tungsten systems. Specifically, oxidative cleavage of [Me(2)Si(C(5)Me(4))(2)]M(RH) is favored over RH dissociation for the tungsten system, whereas RH dissociation is favored for the molybdenum system. A kinetics analysis of the interconversion of [Me(2)Si(C(5)Me(4))(2)]W(CH(3))D and [Me(2)Si(C(5)Me(4))(2)]W(CH(2)D)H, accompanied by elimination of methane, provides evidence that the reductive coupling step in this system is characterized by a normal KIE. This observation demonstrates that the inverse KIE for overall reductive elimination is a result of an inverse equilibrium isotope effect (EIE) and is not a result of an inverse KIE for a single step. A previous report of an inverse kinetic isotope effect of 0.76 for C-H reductive coupling in the [Tp]Pt(CH(3))H(2) system is shown to be erroneous. Finally, a computational study provides evidence that the reductive coupling of [Me(2)Si(C(5)Me(4))(2)]W(Ph)H proceeds via the initial formation of a benzene sigma-complex, rather than an eta(2)-pi-benzene complex.

On the mechanism of (PCP)Ir-catalyzed acceptorless dehydrogenation of alkanes: a combined computational and experimental study

Pincer complexes of the type ((R)PCP)IrH(2), where ((R)PCP)Ir is [eta(3)-2,6-(R(2)PCH(2))(2)C(6)H(3)]Ir, are the most effective catalysts reported to date for the "acceptorless" dehydrogenation of alkanes to yield alkenes and free H(2). We calculate (DFT/B3LYP) that associative (A) reactions of ((Me)PCP)IrH(2) with model linear (propane, n-PrH) and cyclic (cyclohexane, CyH) alkanes may proceed via classical Ir(V) and nonclassical Ir(III)(eta(2)-H(2)) intermediates. A dissociative (D) pathway proceeds via initial loss of H(2), followed by C-H addition to ((Me)PCP)Ir. Although a slightly higher energy barrier (DeltaE(+ +)) is computed for the D pathway, the calculated free-energy barrier (DeltaG(+ +)) for the D pathway is significantly lower than that of the A pathway. Under standard thermodynamic conditions (STP), C-H addition via the D pathway has DeltaG(o)(+ +) = 36.3 kcal/mol for CyH (35.1 kcal/mol for n-PrH). However, acceptorless dehydrogenation of alkanes is thermodynamically impossible at STP. At conditions under which acceptorless dehydrogenation is thermodynamically possible (for example, T = 150 degrees C and P(H)2 = 1.0 x 10(-7) atm), DeltaG(+ +) for C-H addition to ((Me)PCP)Ir (plus a molecule of free H(2)) is very low (17.5 kcal/mol for CyH, 16.7 kcal/mol for n-PrH). Under these conditions, the rate-determining step for the D pathway is the loss of H(2) from ((Me)PCP)IrH(2) with DeltaG(D)(+ +) approximately DeltaH(D)(+ +) = 27.2 kcal/mol. For CyH, the calculated DeltaG(o)(+ +) for C-H addition to ((Me)PCP)IrH(2) on the A pathway is 35.2 kcal/mol (32.7 kcal/mol for n-PrH). At catalytic conditions, the calculated free energies of C-H addition are 31.3 and 33.7 kcal/mol for CyH and n-PrH addition, respectively. Elimination of H(2) from the resulting "seven-coordinate" Ir-species must proceed with an activation enthalpy at least as large as the enthalpy change of the elimination step itself (DeltaH approximately 11-13 kcal/mol), and with a small entropy of activation. The free energy of activation for H(2) elimination (DeltaG(A)(+ +)) is hence found to be greater than ca. 36 kcal/mol for both CyH and n-PrH under catalytic conditions. The overall free-energy barrier of the A pathway is calculated to be higher than that of the D pathway by ca. 9 kcal/mol. Reversible C-H(D) addition to ((R)PCP)IrH(2) is predicted to lead to H/D exchange, because the barriers for hydride scrambling are extremely low in the "seven-coordinate" polyhydrides. In agreement with calculation, H/D exchange is observed experimentally for several deuteriohydrocarbons with the following order of rates: C(6)D(6) > mesitylene-d(12) > n-decane-d(22) >> cyclohexane-d(12). Because H/D exchange in cyclohexane-d(12) solution is not observed even after 1 week at 180 degrees C, we estimate that the experimental barrier to cyclohexane C-D addition is greater than 36.4 kcal/mol. This value is considerably greater than the experimental barrier for the full catalytic dehydrogenation cycle for cycloalkanes (ca. 31 kcal/mol). Thus, the experimental evidence, in agreement with calculation, strongly indicates that the A pathway is not kinetically viable as a segment of the "acceptorless" dehydrogenation cycle.