Application of Molecular Absorption Properties of Horseradish Peroxidase for Self-Indicating Enzymatic Interactions and Analytical Methods

Borate Buffer as a Key Player in Cu-Based Homogeneous Electrocatalytic Water Oxidation

Borate buffer was found to have both structural and functional roles within a low-cost tri-copper electrocatalyst for homogeneous water oxidation that exhibits a high turnover frequency of 310 s-1 . The borate buffer was shown to facilitate the catalytic activity by both bridging the three Cu ions and participating in O-O bond formation. Phosphate and acetate buffers did not show such roles, making borate a unique player in this catalytic system.

A new biomimetic nanozyme of hemin/graphdiyne oxide with superior peroxidase-like activity for colorimetric bioassays

Graphdiyne oxide (GDYO) is a novel type of two-dimensional carbon allotrope nanomaterial consisting of a large conjugated system and excellent chemical stability. To date, application of GDYO as a nanozyme in biosensing has been rarely reported. In this study, a novel ultrasensitive colorimetric bioassay was constructed using a hemin/GDYO nanocomposite (H/GDYO) as a new nanozyme with superior peroxidase-like activity for the detection of H₂O₂ and glucose. It was discovered that H/GDYO exhibited 6-fold higher peroxidase-like activity than pure hemin. Catalytic kinetic analysis showed that H/GDYO had a much higher affinity for H₂O₂ and glucose than that of hemin. The designed colorimetric bioassay displayed excellent sensitivity for H₂O₂ and glucose detection with a wide linear range of 0.015-0.5 mM and 0.1-10 mM, respectively, while the limit of detection (LOD) was as low as 4.39 μM and 38 μM, respectively. Moreover, it was successfully applied for the analysis of H₂O₂ in milk and glucose in real human serum samples with acceptable recoveries. Importantly, the developed colorimetric bioassay shows good agreement with the results obtained from a commercial blood glucose meter. We believe that the proposed method could provide a promising prospect for medical diagnosis and biotechnology.

Immobilization of Lepidium draba peroxidase on a novel Zn-MOF nanostructure

In the present study, ultrasound irradiation was utilized to synthesize a novel zinc metal-organic framework (MOF). Scanning electron microscopic images, exhibited homogenous morphology with a nano-sized distribution of the Zn-MOF structure as also confirmed by X-ray diffraction patterns. Following, physical immobilization of Lepidium draba peroxidase (LDP) were optimized on the Zn-MOF in phosphate buffer (50 mM, pH 6.5), ratio amount of MOF/enzyme; 7/1 after shaking for 15 min at 25 °C, with high protein loading of 109.9 mg/g and immobilization yield of 93.3%. Immobilized enzyme (IE) exhibited more than 330% enhanced specific activity and also exhibited more than 150% specific affinity to its substrate (3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine) with respect to the free enzyme (FE). Optimum temperature of the IE was obtained at 20 °C while its was 25 °C for the FE, and thermostability of the IE augmented at temperature of 30 °C and 40 °C by the factors of 104 and 108% respectively. pH stability under neutral and basic condition and storage stability of the IE improved with respect to the FE as well as its structural stability (T_m; 73 °C for IE vs. 63 °C for FE). Furthermore, immobilization is accompanied with alteration on the enzyme structure as revealed by the intrinsic and extrinsic fluorescence spectra.

Reliable method for the detection of horseradish peroxidase activity and enzyme kinetics

Enzyme-catalyzed reactions are complicated and their kinetics depend on various chemical and physical factors. In a simple enzyme-catalyzed reaction, the enzyme kinetics often involve two or more substrates. However, this complexity is often ignored when studying enzyme kinetics or determining enzyme activity. Such an example is horseradish peroxidase (HRP), whose activity and kinetics in the reduction of H₂O₂ are usually detected and studied using spectroanalysis, with guaiacol (GA) as the hydrogen donor. In this process, the concentrations of two substrates, GA and H₂O₂, both change, which makes the practical detection, based on determination of the GA oxydate, GA(O), totally wrong. In this study, we introduce a new electrochemical method for detecting the specific activity (SA) and studying the enzyme kinetics of HRP. This electrochemical method was used to directly detect one substrate (H₂O₂) while the concentration of the other substrate (GA) was kept constant by adding ascorbic acid to the system to reduce GA(O) and regenerate GA. For the first time, this HRP-catalyzed reaction, including the mechanism and kinetics, was investigated precisely using a simple electrochemical method. The maximum SA and reaction rate constant k₁ were reliably detected and calculated. The proposed method indicated that the SA of commercially available HRP (300 U mg^-1 detected by spectroanalysis) was 1228.8 U mg^-1 at a GA concentration of 4.5 mM, and up to 2049.9 U mg^-1 as the GA concentration tended toward infinity. Our results suggest that reported methods for detecting enzyme activity and/or kinetics should be re-examined according to the catalytic mechanism of the enzyme.

Tumor Catalytic-Photothermal Therapy with Yolk-Shell Gold@Carbon Nanozymes

Nanozymes, as a new generation of artificial enzymes, offer great opportunities in biomedical engineering and disease treatment. Synergizing the multiple intrinsic functions of nanozymes can improve their performance in biological systems. Here, we report a novel nanozyme with yolk-shell structure fabricated by combining a single gold nanoparticle core with a porous hollow carbon shell nanospheres (Au@HCNs). Au@HCNs exhibited enzyme-like activities similar to horseradish peroxidase and oxidase under an acidic environment, showing the ability of ROS generation. More importantly, the ROS production of Au@HCNs was significantly improved upon 808 nm light irradiation by the photothermal effect, which is often used for tumor therapy. Cellular and animal studies further demonstrated that the efficient tumor destruction was achieved through the combination of light-enhanced ROS and photothermal therapy. These results implied that the intrinsic enzyme-like activity and photothermal conversion of nanozymes can be synergized for efficient tumor treatment, providing a proof-of-concept of tumor catalytic-photothermal therapy based on nanozymes.

Mixed-solvent liquid exfoliated MoS2 NPs as peroxidase mimetics for colorimetric detection of H2O2 and glucose

Ultra-small molybdenum disulfide nanoparticles (MoS₂ NPs) were prepared by a facile liquid exfoliation method with ethanol/water as the solvent. The produced MoS₂ NPs were of high purity due to the easily removable ethanol/water solution. The prepared MoS₂ NPs exhibited an intrinsic peroxidase-like activity in analogy to that of horseradish peroxidase (HRP). A custom-made spectrometer was employed to investigate the peroxidase-like activity of MoS₂ NPs in the presence of H₂O₂ and glucose. The change in absorption detected from MoS₂ NPs is proportional to the amount of target. The calibration curve of H₂O₂ and glucose shows a good relationship between the concentration of target and the change in the absorption of MoS₂ NPs. The limit of detection of H₂O₂ and glucose achieved by this method could approach 1.25 μM and 7 μM respectively. This method has been applied for the detection of glucose in serum from humans. Therefore, these produced MoS₂ NPs offer an alternative high-efficiency and economic way to detect diabetes.

Ultra-small molybdenum disulfide nanoparticles (MoS₂ NPs) prepared by a facile liquid exfoliation method is capable of detecting the presence of H₂O₂ and glucose. This novel colorimetric method offers an alternative way to detect diabetes.

Layered vanadium(IV) disulfide nanosheets as a peroxidase-like nanozyme for colorimetric detection of glucose

The authors have discovered that vanadium disulfide (VS₂) nanosheets, synthesized by a hydrothermal method, exert stable peroxidase-like activity. The catalytic activity, with H₂O₂ as a cosubstrate, follows Michaelis-Menten kinetics and varies with temperature, pH value and H₂O₂ concentration. Two-dimensional VS₂ sheets acting as peroxidase (POx) mimics can replace horseradish peroxidase due to their availability, robustness, and reusability. The POx-like activity of VS₂ sheets was exploited to design a colorimetric glucose assay by using 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine as a substrate and by working at an analytical wavelength of 652 nm. The assay covers the 5 to 250 μM glucose concentration range with a 1.5 μM detection limit. It was applied to the analysis of glucose in fruit juice. In our perception, the peroxidase-like nanozyme out of the family of transition metal dichalcogenides presented here has a wide scope in that it may stimulate promising biocatalytic applications in biotechnology and analytical chemistry. Graphical abstract Layered VS₂ nanosheets were prepared via hydrothermal synthesis and are shown to exert superior peroxidase-mimicking activity. Using these POx nano-mimics, a sensitive colorimetric assay for glucose was developed and applied to fruit juice analysis. This work unlocks the access of VS₂ to biocatalysis and bioassays.

Sensitive fluorescent detection of H2O2 and glucose in human serum based on inner filter effect of squaric acid-iron(III) on the fluorescence of upconversion nanoparticle

Diabetes mellitus is an epidemic disease that it has became a worldwide public health problem. Thus, blood glucose monitoring has attracted extensive attention. Here, we report a nanosensor based on inner filter effect (IFE) between upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) and squaric acid (SQA)-iron(III) for the highly sensitive and selective detection of glucose levels in human serum. In this assay, GOx-catalyzed oxidization of glucose produces gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). The latter can catalytically oxidize iron(II) to iron(III) which can rapidly (<1min) coordinate with the SQA to produce (SQA)-iron(III). The absorption band of (SQA)-iron(III) largely covered the emission band of UCNPs, resulting the fluorescence emission of UCNPs was effectively quenched. Therefore, the glucose can be monitored based on the formation of SQA-iron(III). Under the optimal condition, the fluorescence quenching efficiency shows a good linear response to glucose concentration in the ranges of 7-340μmol/L with a detection limit of 2.3μmol/L. The developed method has been further applied to monitor glucose levels in human serum with satisfactory results. Compared with other fluorescence methods, current method displayed high sensitivity and signal-to-noise ratio. Meanwhile, this nanosystem is also generalizable and can be easily expanded to the detection of various H₂O₂-involved analytes.

Three Dimensional Multipod Superstructure based on Cu(OH)2 as a Highly Efficient Nanozyme

A highly efficient nanozyme system, termed hollow multipod Cu(OH)2 superstructure (HMPS), has been developed via direct conversion from irregular nanoparticles. The HMPS displayed body size around 150 nm and branch lengths in the range of 150~250 nm. Based on the excellent catalytic property of HMPS, we developed a simple and highly sensitive colorimetric assay to detect urine glucose, and the results are in good agreement with hospital examination reports.

Insight into the mechanism revealing the peroxidase mimetic catalytic activity of quaternary CuZnFeS nanocrystals: colorimetric biosensing of hydrogen peroxide and glucose

Artificial enzyme mimetics have attracted immense interest recently because natural enzymes undergo easy denaturation under environmental conditions restricting practical usefulness. We report for the first time chalcopyrite CuZnFeS (CZIS) alloyed nanocrystals (NCs) as novel biomimetic catalysts with efficient intrinsic peroxidase-like activity. Novel peroxidase activities of CZIS NCs have been evaluated by catalytic oxidation of the peroxidase substrate 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). CZIS NCs demonstrate the synergistic effect of elemental composition and photoactivity towards peroxidase-like activity. The quaternary CZIS NCs show enhanced intrinsic peroxidase-like activity compared to the binary NCs with the same constituent elements. Intrinsic peroxidase-like activity has been correlated with the energy band position of CZIS NCs extracted using scanning tunneling spectroscopy and ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy. Kinetic analyses indicate Michaelis-Menten enzyme kinetic model catalytic behavior describing the rate of the enzymatic reaction by correlating the reaction rate with substrate concentration. Typical color reactions arising from the catalytic oxidation of TMB over CZIS NCs with H2O2 have been utilized to establish a simple and sensitive colorimetric assay for detection of H2O2 and glucose. CZIS NCs are recyclable catalysts showing high efficiency in multiple uses. Our study may open up the possibility of designing new photoactive multi-component alloyed NCs as enzyme mimetics in biotechnology applications.

MnO2-Nanosheet-Modified Upconversion Nanosystem for Sensitive Turn-On Fluorescence Detection of H2O2 and Glucose in Blood

Blood glucose monitoring has attracted extensive attention because diabetes mellitus is a worldwide public health problem. Here, we reported an upconversion fluorescence detection method based on manganese dioxide (MnO2)-nanosheet-modified upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) for rapid, sensitive detection of glucose levels in human serum and whole blood. In this strategy, MnO2 nanosheets on the UCNP surface serve as a quencher. UCNP fluorescence can make a recovery by the addition of H2O2, which can reduce MnO2 to Mn(2+), and the glucose can thus be monitored based on the enzymatic conversion of glucose by glucose oxidase to generate H2O2. Because of the nonautofluorescent assays offered by UCNPs, the developed method has been applied to monitor glucose levels in human serum and whole blood samples with satisfactory results. The proposed approach holds great potential for diabetes mellitus research and clinical diagnosis. Meanwhile, this nanosystem is also generalizable and can be easily expanded to the detection of various H2O2-involved analytes.

Fluorescent hydrogen peroxide sensor based on cupric oxide nanoparticles and its application for glucose and L-lactate detection

A novel fluorescent hydrogen peroxide sensor was developed based on the peroxidase-like activity of cupric oxide nanoparticles. Cupric oxide nanoparticles effectively catalyzed the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide into hydroxyl radicals. Then terephthalic acid was oxidized by hydroxyl radical to form a highly fluorescent product. The linear range of hydrogen peroxide estimated to be 5.0 × 10(-6)-2.0 × 10(-4)M with a detection limit of 3.4 × 10(-7)M. Moreover, this detection system enabled the sensing of analytes which can enzymatically generate hydrogen peroxide. By coupling the oxidation of glucose or L-lactate catalyzed by their corresponding oxidase enzymes with terephthalic acid oxidation catalyzed by cupric oxide nanoparticles, sensitive assays of glucose and l-lactate with detection limits of 1.0 × 10(-6) and 4.5 × 10(-8)M were realized. The successful applications of this approach in human serum samples have also been demonstrated.

Ultrathin graphitic carbon nitride nanosheets: a novel peroxidase mimetic, Fe doping-mediated catalytic performance enhancement and application to rapid, highly sensitive optical detection of glucose

In this article, we demonstrate for the first time that ultrathin graphitic carbon nitride nanosheets (g-C3N4) possess peroxidase activity. Fe doping of the nanosheets leads to peroxidase mimetics with greatly enhanced catalytic performance and the mechanism involved is proposed. We further demonstrate the novel use of such Fe-g-C3N4 as a cheap nanosensor for simple, rapid, highly selective and sensitive optical detection of glucose with a pretty low detection limit of 0.5 μM.

Chemiluminescence flow biosensor for glucose using Mg-Al carbonate layered double hydroxides as catalysts and buffer solutions

In this work, serving as supports in immobilizing luminol reagent, catalysts of luminol chemiluminescence (CL), and buffer solutions for the CL reaction, Mg-Al-CO(3) layered double hydroxides (LDHs) were found to trigger luminol CL in weak acid solutions (pH 5.8). The silica sol-gel with glucose oxidase and horseradish peroxidase was immobilized in the first half of the inside surface of a clear quartz tube, and luminol-hybrid Mg-Al-CO(3) LDHs were packed in the second half. Therefore, a novel CL flow-through biosensor for glucose was constructed in weak acid solutions. The CL intensity was linear with glucose concentration in the range of 0.005-1.0mM, and the detection limit for glucose (S/N=3) was 0.1 μM. The proposed biosensor exhibited excellent stability, high reproducibility and high selectivity for the determination of glucose and has been successfully applied to determine glucose in human plasma samples with satisfactory results. The success of this work has broken the bottleneck of the pH incompatibility between luminol CL and enzyme activity.

Stabilization of horseradish peroxidase by covalent conjugation with dextran aldehyde against temperature and pH changes

Stabilization of Horseradish Peroxidase (HRP; EC 1.11.1.7) against temperature and pH via the formation of the conjugates obtained by multipoint covalent bonding of dextran aldehyde (DA) to the enzyme were studied. Hence, three different molar weighted dextrans (17.5 kD, 75 kD, 188 kD) were covalently bonded to purified enzyme with different molar ratios (nHRP/nDA 20/1, 10/1, 1/1, 1/5, 1/10, 1/15, 1/20). The thermal stabilities of the obtained conjugates were evaluated with the activities determined at different temperatures (25, 30, 35, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80°C) applying 60 minutes incubation time. Conjugates formed were characterized by gel-permeation chromatography (GPC) and fluorescence techniques. The conjugate synthesized using dextran 75 kDa with nHRP/nDA 1/10 molar ratio showed better thermal stability than other conjugates and purified enzyme at pH 7. This conjugate also has wider activity pH range than purified enzyme. In addition, mentioned conjugate at pH 7 had very long storage lifetime compared to purified enzyme at +4°C and room temperature; which is considered a favorable feature for usage in practice.

Direct glucose determination in blood using a reagentless optical biosensor

This paper demonstrates that glucose determination in blood can be done directly (without sample pretreatment) using a reagentless reversible biosensor based on the intrinsic spectroscopic properties of peroxidase (HRP). The biosensor, prepared by HRP and glucose oxidase entrapment in a polyacrylamide gel matrix, works in continuous mode, presents a linear response range from 1.5 x 10(-6) up to 5.5 x 10(-5)M and can be used for at least 750 measurements; in the best conditions (0.1 M pH 6 phosphate buffer, HRP and GOx amounts in the polymersation mixture for the sensor film preparation 0.0165 and 0.0010 g, respectively) the minimum samples rate is 30 h(-1). For glucose determination, blood is simply diluted in water (until haemolysis is completed) and fed into the sensor without a cleaning step between samples; the blood absorption is corrected in a simple way by working at a proper reference wavelength. The biosensor signals have been mathematically modeled in order to facilitate the design of sensors based on the same idea for other biochemical compounds.

Entrapment of horseradish peroxidase in sugar-modified silica monoliths: Toward the development of a biocatalytic sensor

A miniaturized HRP-entrapped bioreactor was prepared by a one-step enzyme immobilization method using a biocompatible sol-gel processing method employing either diglycerylsilane (DGS) or sodium silicate (SS) as precursors and a covalently tethered sugar, N-(3-triethoxysilylpropyl)gluconamide (GLS) as a silica modifier. Factors such as leaching, catalytic efficiency and long-term stability were examined to assess the role of the precursor and modifier in influencing enzyme performance. The results showed that sodium silicate derived materials modified with covalently bound sugars at a level of 10 mol% were optically transparent and provided the highest catalytic turnover rate for entrapped HRP. The stability and reusability of the entrapped HRP was found to be satisfactory for at least 1 month in the GLS-doped SS materials, and the entrapped HRP was able to respond linearly to the presence of peroxide over the concentration range of 0-750 microM with a detection limit of 6 microM, demonstrating the potential of this material for the development of a reusable optical biosensor.

Hydrogen peroxide and peracetic acid determination in waste water using a reversible reagentless biosensor

During the reversible reaction between peroxidase (HRP) and peroxides, several peroxidase intermediate species, showing different molecular absorption spectra, are formed which can be used for their determination. On this basis, a reversible reagentless optical biosensor based on HRP for hydrogen peroxide and peracetic acid determinations has been developed. The biosensor (which can be used for at least 3 months and/or more than 200 measurements) is prepared by HRP entrapment in a polyacrylamide gel matrix. A mathematical model (in which optical, kinetic and transport aspects are considered) relating the measured absorbance with the analyte concentration is also presented. Both peroxides show similar responses in the sensor film. Under the recommended working conditions, the biosensor shows linear response ranges from 6x10(-7) to 1.0x10(-4) M using FIA mode, and from 2x10(-7) to 1.5x10(-5) M using continuous mode for both peroxides; the precision, expressed as R.S.D., is about 4%. This biosensor has been applied for peroxide determination in waste water samples previously treated with peroxides.

A reagentless optical biosensor based on the intrinsic absorption properties of peroxidase

During the reversible reaction between peroxidase (HRP) and H(2)O(2), several peroxidase intermediate species, showing different molecular absorption spectra, are formed which can be used for H(2)O(2) determination; when H(2)O(2) is generated in a previous enzymatic reaction, the substrate involved in this reaction can also be determined. On this basis, a new family of fully reversible reagentless optical biosensors containing HRP is presented; glucose determination is used as a model. The biosensor (which can be used for at least 6 months and/or more than 750 measurements) is prepared by HRP and glucose oxidase entrapment in a polyacrylamide gel matrix. A mathematical model (in which optical, kinetic and transport aspects are considered) relating the measured absorbance with the substrate concentration is also presented together with a simple methodology for characterization of this kind of biosensor. Regarding the optical model, the Kubelka-Mulk theory of reflectance does not give good results and the biosensors are better described by the Rayleigh theory of polymer solutions. Under working conditions, linear response ranges from 1.5x10(-6) to 3.0x10(-4)M glucose and CV was about 4%. This biosensor has been applied for glucose determination in fruit juices and synthetic serum samples without sample pretreatment.

Using blood hemoglobin for blood analysis

This paper demonstrates that the spectrophotometric properties of blood hemoglobin (Hb) can be used for the direct determination of biochemical compounds in blood. Glucose is used as a model, but the methodology can be applied to many other compounds (only a previous enzymatic reaction producing H(2)O(2) is needed). In order to develop the method, a model relating the Hb absorbance variation during the reaction with the glucose concentration has been developed to provide theoretical support for the method and to predict its application to other compounds. In addition, clear blood samples need to be prepared without pre-treatment and lateral reactions of H(2)O(2) with other blood constituents need to be blocked; this has been achieved with 100 : 1 v/v blood dilution in bi-distilled water and azide addition. The linear response range of the method can be fitted between 2 and 540 mg dL(-1) glucose relative to the original blood sample (RSD about 4%, 70 mg dL(-1)). The analyte concentration can be obtained by an absolute calibration method or by the standard addition method; both have been applied for direct glucose determination in several blood samples and good correlations with those obtained by an automatic analyzer have been obtained.

Kinetic Analysis of Semisynthetic Peroxidase Enzymes Containing a Covalent DNA–Heme Adduct as the Cofactor

The reconstitution of apo enzymes with DNA oligonucleotide-modified heme (protoporphyrin IX) cofactors has been employed as a tool to produce artificial enzymes that can be specifically immobilized at the solid surfaces. To this end, covalent heme-DNA adducts were synthesized and subsequently used in the reconstitution of apo myoglobin (aMb) and apo horseradish peroxidase (aHRP). The reconstitution produced catalytically active enzymes that contained one or two DNA oligomers coupled to the enzyme in the close proximity to the active site. Kinetic studies of these DNA-enzyme conjugates, carried out with two substrates, ABTS and Amplex Red, showed a remarkable increase in peroxidase activity of the DNA-Mb enzymes while a decrease in enzymatic activity was observed for the DNA-HRP enzymes. All DNA-enzyme conjugates were capable of specific binding to a solid support containing complementary DNA oligomers as capture probes. Kinetic analysis of the enzymes immobilized by the DNA-directed immobilization method revealed that the enzymes remained active after hybridization to the capture oligomers. The programmable binding properties enabled by DNA hybridization make such semisynthetic enzyme conjugates useful for a broad range of applications, particularly in biocatalysis, electrochemical sensing, and as building blocks for biomaterials.

Use of fluorescence to monitor the incorporation of horseradish peroxidase into a sol–gel derived medium

The solvatochromic dye nile red has been employed to monitor the incorporation of an enzyme (horseradish peroxidase) into a sol-gel derived medium. The fluorescence spectrum of the dye, when incorporated into the enzyme, was analysed as the sum of Gaussian component spectra and relative changes between these component spectra were monitored upon encapsulation of the dye-enzyme system within the host matrix. Activity of the confined enzyme was verified and the effect of temperature was also investigated, through the examination of nile red fluorescence in the sol-gel derived matrix, where a stabilising effect was noted.