Facile and E-selective intramolecular ring-closing metathesis reactions in 3(10)-helical peptides: a 3D structural study

Highly Cytotoxic Cryptophycin Derivatives with Modification in Unit D for Conjugation

Cytotoxic payloads for drug conjugates suitable for directed tumor therapy need to be highly potent and require a functional group for conjugation with the homing device (antibody, peptide, or small molecule). Cryptophycins are cyclodepsipeptides that stand out from the realm of natural products due to their extraordinarily high cytotoxicity. However, the installation of a suitable conjugation handle without compromising the toxicity is highly challenging. The unit D, natively 2-hydroxyisocaproic acid (leucic acid), was envisaged as a promising attachment site based on structural information from X-ray analysis. A versatile, scalable and efficient synthetic route towards conjugable cryptophycins with modification in unit D was developed and an array of new cryptophycin analogues was synthesized. Several derivatives, especially those containing lipophilic groups with low steric demand such as alkylated amino groups, exhibit low picomolar cytotoxicity often combined with efficacy against multidrug-resistant tumor cells. The newly established cryptophycin analogues comprise a broad range of relevant functional groups used as conjugation handles, among them amino, hydroxy, carboxy, as well as sulfur-containing derivatives. X-ray crystallographic analysis of a tubulin-bound cryptophycin together with quantitative structure activity relationship manifested rationales for the synthesis of most potent cryptophycin derivatives and further confirmed the suitability of modifications in unit D.

E-Selective Ring-Closing Metathesis in α-Helical Stapled Peptides Using Carbocyclic α,α-Disubstituted α-Amino Acids

We present an E-selective ring-closing metathesis reaction in α-helical stapled peptides at positions i and i + 4. The use of two chiral carbocyclic α,α-disubstituted α-amino acids, (1S,3S)-Ac5c3OAll and (1R,3S)-Ac5c3OAll, provides a high E-selectivity of a ≤59:1 E:Z ratio, while mixtures with E:Z ratios of 2.1-0.5:1 were produced with standard acyclic (S)-(4-pentenyl)alanine amino acids. A stapled octapeptide composed of (1S,3S)- and (1R,3S)-Ac5c3OAll amino acids showed a right-handed α-helical crystal structure.

Design of Pseudodiproline Dimers as Mimetics of Pro-Pro Units: Stereocontrolled Synthesis, Configurational Relevance, and Structural Properties

Stereocontrolled methods are described for the synthesis of hitherto unreported pseudodiproline dimers in which a cyclopentane carboxylic acid is linked to a pyrrolidine residue by a stereochemically defined hydroxymethylene tether. These proline-cyclopentane (Pro-Cyp) dimers have interesting structural characteristics as seen in their X-ray crystal structures as well as their nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra in CDCl₃. They can be considered to be novel Pro-Pro mimetics, which can be used to replace natural diproline sequences with potential applications in medicinal chemistry. They also represent a new concept in the peptidomimetic design of chimeric proline-based amino acids as carbocyclic hydroxyethylene isosteres of inhibitor molecules, in which the stereodefined bridging hydroxyl group can simulate a tetrahedral intermediate in an enzyme complex.

Macrocyclization strategies for cyclic peptides and peptidomimetics

Peptides are a growing therapeutic class due to their unique spatial characteristics that can target traditionally "undruggable" protein-protein interactions and surfaces. Despite their advantages, peptides must overcome several key shortcomings to be considered as drug leads, including their high conformational flexibility and susceptibility to proteolytic cleavage. As a general approach for overcoming these challenges, macrocyclization of a linear peptide can usually improve these characteristics. Their synthetic accessibility makes peptide macrocycles very attractive, though traditional synthetic methods for macrocyclization can be challenging for peptides, especially for head-to-tail cyclization. This review provides an updated summary of the available macrocyclization chemistries, such as traditional lactam formation, azide-alkyne cycloadditions, ring-closing metathesis as well as unconventional cyclization reactions, and it is structured according to the obtained functional groups. Keeping peptide chemistry and screening in mind, the focus is given to reactions applicable in solution, on solid supports, and compatible with contemporary screening methods.

Conformationally Constrained Peptides with High Affinity to the Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor

The design of efficient vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) inhibitors is a high-priority research area aimed at the treatment of pathological angiogenesis. Among other compounds, v114* has been identified as a potent VEGF-binding peptide. In order to improve the affinity to VEGF, we built a conformational constrain in its structure. To this aim, C^α-tetrasubstituted amino acid Aib was introduced into the N-terminal tail, peptide loop, or C-terminal helix. NMR studies confirmed the stabilization of the helical conformation in proximity to the Aib residue. We found that the induction of the N-terminal helical structure or stabilization of the C-terminal helix can noticeably increase the peptide affinity to the VEGF. These peptides efficiently inhibited VEGF-stimulated cell proliferation as well. The insertion of the non-proteinogenic Aib residue significantly enhanced the stability of the peptides in the vitreous environment. Thus, these Aib-containing peptides are promising candidates for the design of VEGF inhibitors with improved properties.

X-ray Crystallographic Structure of α-Helical Peptide Stabilized by Hydrocarbon Stapling at i,i + 1 Positions

Hydrocarbon stapling is a useful tool for stabilizing the secondary structure of peptides. Among several methods, hydrocarbon stapling at i,i + 1 positions was not extensively studied, and their secondary structures are not clarified. In this study, we investigate i,i + 1 hydrocarbon stapling between cis-4-allyloxy-l-proline and various olefin-tethered amino acids. Depending on the ring size of the stapled side chains and structure of the olefin-tethered amino acids, E- or Z-selectivities were observed during the ring-closing metathesis reaction (E/Z was up to 8.5:1 for 17–14-membered rings and up to 1:20 for 13-membered rings). We performed X-ray crystallographic analysis of hydrocarbon stapled peptide at i,i + 1 positions. The X-ray crystallographic structure suggested that the i,i + 1 staple stabilizes the peptide secondary structure to the right-handed α-helix. These findings are especially important for short oligopeptides because the employed stapling method uses two minimal amino acid residues adjacent to each other.

Design and Synthesis of Helical N-Terminal L-Prolyl Oligopeptides Possessing Hydrocarbon Stapling

We designed and synthesized helical short oligopeptides with an L-proline on the N-terminus and hydrocarbon stapling on the side chain. Side-chain stapling is a frequently used method for the development of biologically active peptides. Side-chain stapling can stabilize the secondary structures of peptides, and, therefore, stapled peptides may be applicable to peptide-based organocatalysts. Olefin-tethered cis-4-hydroxy-L-proline 1 and L-serine 2 and 8, and (R)-α-allyl-proline 18 were used as cross-linking motifs and incorporated into helical peptide sequences. The Z- and E-selectivities were observed for the ring-closing metathesis reactions of peptides 3 and 11 (i,i+1 series), respectively, while no E/Z-selectivity was observed for that of 19 (i,i+3 series). The stapled peptide B' catalyzed the Michael addition reaction of 1-methylindole to α,β-unsaturated aldehyde, which was seven times faster than that of unstapled peptide B. Furthermore, the high catalytic activity was retained even at lower catalyst loadings (5 mol %) and lower temperatures (0 °C). The circular dichroism spectra of stapled peptide B' showed a right-handed helix with a higher intensity than that of unstapled peptide B. These results indicate that the introduction of side-chain stapling is beneficial for enhancing the catalytic activity of short oligopeptide catalysts.

Helix-Coil Transition at a Glycine Following a Nascent α-Helix: A Synergetic Guidance Mechanism for Helix Growth

A detailed understanding of forces guiding the rapid folding of a polypeptide from an apparently random coil state to an ordered α-helical structure following the rate-limiting preorganization of the initial three residue backbones into helical conformation is imperative to comprehending and regulating protein folding and for the rational design of biological mimetics. However, several details of this process are still unknown. First, although the helix-coil transition was proposed to originate at the residue level (J. Chem. Phys. 1959, 31, 526-535; J. Chem. Phys. 1961, 34, 1963-1974), all helix-folding studies have only established it between time-averaged bulk states of a long-lived helix and several transiently populated random coils, along the whole helix model sequence. Second, the predominant thermodynamic forces driving either this two-state transition or the faster helix growth following helix nucleation are still unclear. Third, the conformational space of the random coil state is not well-defined unlike its corresponding α-helix. Here we investigate the restrictions placed on the conformational space of a Gly residue backbone, as a result of it immediately succeeding a nascent α-helical turn. Analyses of the temperature-dependent 1D-, 2D-NMR, FT-IR, and CD spectra and GROMACS MD simulation trajectory of a Gly residue backbone following a model α-helical turn, which is artificially rigidified by a covalent hydrogen bond surrogate, reveal that: (i) the α-helical turn guides the ϕ torsion of the Gly exclusively into either a predominantly populated entropically favored α-helical (α-ϕ) state or a scarcely populated random coil (RC-ϕ) state; (ii) the α-ϕ state of Gly in turn favors the stability of the preceding α-helical turn, while the RC-ϕ state disrupts it, revealing an entropy-driven synergetic guidance for helix growth in the residue following helix nucleation. The applicability of a current synergetic guidance mechanism to explain rapid helix growth in folded and unfolded states of proteins and helical peptides is discussed.

H-Bond Surrogate-Stabilized Shortest Single-Turn α-Helices: sp2 Constraints and Residue Preferences for the Highest α-Helicities

Short α-helical sequences of proteins fail to maintain their native conformation when taken out of their protein context. Several covalent constraints have been designed, including the covalent H-bond surrogate (HBS)-where a peptide backbone i + 4 → i H-bond is replaced by a covalent surrogate-to nucleate α-helix in short sequences (>7 < 15 amino acids). But constraining the shortest sequences (four amino acids) into a single α-helical turn is still a significant challenge. Here, we introduce an HBS model that can be placed in unstructured tetrapeptides without excising any of its residues, and that biases them predominantly into remarkably stable single α-helical turns in varying solvents, pH values, and temperatures. Circular dichroism (CD), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) absorption, one-dimensional (1D)-NMR, two-dimensional (2D)-NMR spectral and computational analyses of the HBS-constrained tetrapeptide analogues reveal that (a) the number of sp² atoms in the HBS-constrained backbone influences their predominance and rigidity in the α-helical conformation; and (b) residue preferences at the unnatural HBS-constrained positions influence their α-helicities, with Moc[GFA]G-OMe (1a) showing the highest known α-helicity (θ_n→π*MRE ∼-25.3 × 10³ deg cm² dmol^-1 at 228 nm) for a single α-helical turn. Current findings benefit chemical biological applications desiring predictable access to single α-helical turns in tetrapeptides.

Unravelling electron transfer in peptide-cation complexes: a model for mimicking redox centres in proteins

We provide evidence that bound zinc promotes electron transfer in a peptide by changing the electronic properties of the peptide.

Backbone-Constrained Peptides: Temperature and Secondary Structure Affect Solid-State Electron Transport

The primary sequence and secondary structure of a peptide are crucial to charge migration, not only in solution (electron transfer, ET), but also in the solid-state (electron transport, ETp). Hence, understanding the charge migration mechanisms is fundamental to the development of biomolecular devices and sensors. We report studies on four Aib-containing helical peptide analogues: two acyclic linear peptides with one and two electron-rich alkene-based side chains, respectively, and two peptides that are further rigidified into a macrocycle by a side bridge constraint, containing one or no alkene. ETp was investigated across Au/peptide/Au junctions, between 80 and 340 K in combination with the molecular dynamic (MD) simulations. The results reveal that the helical structure of the peptide and electron-rich side chain both facilitate the ETp. As temperature increases, the loss of helical structure, change of monolayer tilt angle, and increase of thermally activated fluctuations affect the conductance of peptides. Specifically, room temperature conductance across the peptide monolayers correlates well with previously observed ET rate constants, where an interplay between backbone rigidity and electron-rich side chains was revealed. Our findings provide new means to manipulate electronic transport across solid-state peptide junctions.

Recent advances in ruthenium-based olefin metathesis

Ruthenium-based olefin metathesis catalysts, known for their functional group tolerance and broad applicability in organic synthesis and polymer science, continue to evolve as an enabling technology in these areas. A discussion of recent mechanistic investigations is followed by an overview of selected applications.

Macrocyclic α helical peptide therapeutic modality: A perspective of learnings and challenges

Macrocyclic α-helical peptides have emerged as a compelling new therapeutic modality to tackle targets confined to the intracellular compartment. Within the scope of hydrocarbon-stapling there has been significant progress to date, including the first stapled α-helical peptide to enter into clinical trials. The principal design concept of stapled α-helical peptides is to mimic a cognate (protein) ligand relative to binding its target via an α-helical interface. However, it was the proclivity of such stapled α-helical peptides to exhibit cell permeability and proteolytic stability that underscored their promise as unique macrocyclic peptide drugs for intracellular targets. This perspective highlights key learnings as well as challenges in basic research with respect to structure-based design, innovative chemistry, cell permeability and proteolytic stability that are essential to fulfill the promise of stapled α-helical peptide drug development.

In Search of the Optimal Macrocyclization Site for Neurotensin

Neurotensin exerts potent analgesic effects following activation of its cognate GPCRs. In this study, we describe a systematic exploration, using structure-based design, of conformationally constraining neurotensin (8-13) with the help of macrocyclization and the resulting impacts on binding affinity, signaling, and proteolytic stability. This exploratory study led to a macrocyclic scaffold with submicromolar binding affinity, agonist activity, and greatly improved plasma stability.

An in-tether sulfilimine chiral center induces β-turn conformation in short peptides

A sulfilimine chiral center in the tether at i, i + 3 positions of short peptides was systematically studied to elucidate the chirality-driven conformational changes. A rare and unexpected type III β-turn structure was induced in short peptides by an in-tether chiral center, supported by circular dichroism spectroscopy, NMR and X-ray crystallography.

Peptides as Bio-inspired Molecular Electronic Materials

Understanding the electronic properties of single peptides is not only of fundamental importance to biology, but it is also pivotal to the realization of bio-inspired molecular electronic materials. Natural proteins have evolved to promote electron transfer in many crucial biological processes. However, their complex conformational nature inhibits a thorough investigation, so in order to study electron transfer in proteins, simple peptide models containing redox active moieties present as ideal candidates. Here we highlight the importance of secondary structure characteristic to proteins/peptides, and its relevance to electron transfer. The proposed mechanisms responsible for such transfer are discussed, as are details of the electrochemical techniques used to investigate their electronic properties. Several factors that have been shown to influence electron transfer in peptides are also considered. Finally, a comprehensive experimental and theoretical study demonstrates that the electron transfer kinetics of peptides can be successfully fine tuned through manipulation of chemical composition and backbone rigidity. The methods used to characterize the conformation of all peptides synthesized throughout the study are outlined, along with the various approaches used to further constrain the peptides into their geometric conformations. The aforementioned sheds light on the potential of peptides to one day play an important role in the fledgling field of molecular electronics.

A controllable mechanistic transition of charge transfer in helical peptides: from hopping to superexchange

A controllable mechanistic transition of charge transfer in helical peptides is demonstrated as a direct result of side-bridge gating.

Chiral Sulfoxide-Induced Single Turn Peptide α-Helicity

Inducing α-helicity through side-chain cross-linking is a strategy that has been pursued to improve peptide conformational rigidity and bio-availability. Here we describe the preparation of small peptides tethered to chiral sulfoxide-containing macrocyclic rings. Furthermore, a study of structure-activity relationships (SARs) disclosed properties with respect to ring size, sulfur position, oxidation state, and stereochemistry that show a propensity to induce α-helicity. Supporting data include circular dichroism spectroscopy (CD), NMR spectroscopy, and a single crystal X-ray structure for one such stabilized peptide. Finally, theoretical studies are presented to elucidate the effect of chiral sulfoxides in inducing backbone α-helicity.

Chiral tether-mediated stabilization and helix-sense control of complementary metallo-double helices

A series of novel PtII-linked double helices were prepared by inter- or intrastrand ligand-exchange reactions of the complementary duplexes composed of chiral or achiral amidine dimer and achiral carboxylic acid dimer strands joined by trans-PtII-acetylide complexes with PPh3 ligands using chiral and achiral chelating diphosphines. The structure and stability of the PtII-linked double helices were highly dependent on the diphosphine structures. An interstrand ligand exchange took place with chiral and achiral 1,3-diphosphine-based ligands, resulting in trans-PtII-bridged double helices, whose helical structures were quite stable even in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) due to the interstrand cross-link, whereas a 1,2-diphosphine-based ligand produced non-cross-linked cis-PtII-linked duplexes, resulting from an intrastrand ligand-exchange that readily dissociated into single strands in DMSO. When enantiopure 1,3-diphosphine-based ligands were used, the resulting trans-PtII-bridged double helices adopted a preferred-handed helical sense biased by the chirality of the bridged diphosphines. Interestingly, the interstrand ligand exchange with racemic 1,3-diphosphine toward an optically-active PtII-linked duplex, composed of chiral amidine and achiral carboxylic acid strands, was found to proceed in a diastereoselective manner, thus forming complete homochiral trans-PtII-bridged double helices via a unique chiral self-sorting.

Macrocyclic α-Helical Peptide Drug Discovery

Macrocyclic α-helical peptides have emerged as a promising new drug class and within the scope of hydrocarbon-stapled peptides such molecules have advanced into the clinic. The overarching concept of designing proteomimetics of an α-helical ‘ligand’ which binds its cognate ‘target’ relative to α-helical interfacing protein-protein interactions has been well-validated and expanded through numerous investigations for a plethora of therapeutic targets oftentimes referred to as “undruggable” with respect to other modalities (e.g., small-molecule or proteins). This chapter highlights the evolution of macrocyclic α-helical peptides in terms of target space, biophysical and computational chemistry, structural diversity and synthesis, drug design and chemical biology. It is noteworthy that hydrocarbon-stapled peptides have successfully risen to the summit of such drug discovery campaigns.

Unraveling the interplay of backbone rigidity and electron rich side-chains on electron transfer in peptides: the realization of tunable molecular wires

Electrochemical studies are reported on a series of peptides constrained into either a 310-helix (1-6) or β-strand (7-9) conformation, with variable numbers of electron rich alkene containing side chains. Peptides (1 and 2) and (7 and 8) are further constrained into these geometries with a suitable side chain tether introduced by ring closing metathesis (RCM). Peptides 1, 4 and 5, each containing a single alkene side chain reveal a direct link between backbone rigidity and electron transfer, in isolation from any effects due to the electronic properties of the electron rich side-chains. Further studies on the linear peptides 3-6 confirm the ability of the alkene to facilitate electron transfer through the peptide. A comparison of the electrochemical data for the unsaturated tethered peptides (1 and 7) and saturated tethered peptides (2 and 8) reveals an interplay between backbone rigidity and effects arising from the electron rich alkene side-chains on electron transfer. Theoretical calculations on β-strand models analogous to 7, 8 and 9 provide further insights into the relative roles of backbone rigidity and electron rich side-chains on intramolecular electron transfer. Furthermore, electron population analysis confirms the role of the alkene as a "stepping stone" for electron transfer. These findings provide a new approach for fine-tuning the electronic properties of peptides by controlling backbone rigidity, and through the inclusion of electron rich side-chains. This allows for manipulation of energy barriers and hence conductance in peptides, a crucial step in the design and fabrication of molecular-based electronic devices.

Z-Selective olefin metathesis on peptides: investigation of side-chain influence, preorganization, and guidelines in substrate selection

Olefin metathesis has emerged as a promising strategy for modulating the stability and activity of biologically relevant compounds; however, the ability to control olefin geometry in the product remains a challenge. Recent advances in the design of cyclometalated ruthenium catalysts has led to new strategies for achieving such control with high fidelity and Z selectivity, but the scope and limitations of these catalysts on substrates bearing multiple functionalities, including peptides, remained unexplored. Herein, we report an assessment of various factors that contribute to both productive and nonproductive Z-selective metathesis on peptides. The influence of sterics, side-chain identity, and preorganization through peptide secondary structure are explored by homodimerization, cross metathesis, and ring-closing metathesis. Our results indicate that the amino acid side chain and identity of the olefin profoundly influence the activity of cyclometalated ruthenium catalysts in Z-selective metathesis. The criteria set forth for achieving high conversion and Z selectivity are highlighted by cross metathesis and ring-closing metathesis on diverse peptide substrates. The principles outlined in this report are important not only for expanding the scope of Z-selective olefin metathesis to peptides but also for applying stereoselective olefin metathesis in general synthetic endeavors.

Stitched α-helical peptides via bis ring-closing metathesis

Conformationally stabilized α-helical peptides are capable of inhibiting disease-relevant intracellular or extracellular protein-protein interactions in vivo. We have previously reported that the employment of ring-closing metathesis to introduce a single all-hydrocarbon staple along one face of an α-helical peptide greatly increases α-helical content, binding affinity to a target protein, cell penetration through active transport, and resistance to proteolytic degradation. In an effort to improve upon this technology for stabilizing a peptide in a bioactive α-helical conformation, we report the discovery of an efficient and selective bis ring-closing metathesis reaction leading to peptides bearing multiple contiguous staples connected by a central spiro ring junction. Circular dichroism spectroscopy, NMR, and computational analyses have been used to investigate the conformation of these "stitched" peptides, which are shown to exhibit remarkable thermal stabilities. Likewise, trypsin proteolysis assays confirm the achievement of a structural rigidity unmatched by peptides bearing a single staple. Furthermore, fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) and confocal microscopy assays demonstrate that stitched peptides display superior cell penetrating ability compared to their stapled counterparts, suggesting that this technology may be useful not only in the context of enhancing the drug-like properties of α-helical peptides but also in producing potent agents for the intracellular delivery of proteins and oligonucleotides.

Cell-permeable stapled peptides based on HIV-1 integrase inhibitors derived from HIV-1 gene products

HIV-1 integrase (IN) is an enzyme which is indispensable for the stable infection of host cells because it catalyzes the insertion of viral DNA into the genome and thus is an attractive target for the development of anti-HIV agents. Earlier, we found Vpr-derived peptides with inhibitory activity against HIV-1 IN. These Vpr-derived peptides are originally located in an α-helical region of the parent Vpr protein. Addition of an octa-arginyl group to the inhibitory peptides caused significant inhibition against HIV replication associated with an increase in cell permeability but also relatively high cytotoxicity. In the current study, stapled peptides, a new class of stabilized α-helical peptidomimetics were adopted to enhance the cell permeability of the above lead peptides. A series of stapled peptides, which have a hydrocarbon link formed by a ruthenium-catalyzed ring-closing metathesis reaction between successive turns of α-helix, were designed, synthesized, and evaluated for biological activity. In cell-based assays some of the stapled peptides showed potent anti-HIV activity comparable with that of the original octa-arginine-containing peptide (2) but with lower cytotoxicity. Fluorescent imaging experiments revealed that these stapled peptides are significantly cell permeable, and CD analysis showed they form α-helical structures, whereas the unstapled congeners form β-sheet structures. The application of this stapling strategy to Vpr-derived IN inhibitory peptides led to a remarkable increase in their potency in cells and a significant reduction of their cytotoxicity.

Stapled α-helical peptide drug development: a potent dual inhibitor of MDM2 and MDMX for p53-dependent cancer therapy

Stapled α-helical peptides have emerged as a promising new modality for a wide range of therapeutic targets. Here, we report a potent and selective dual inhibitor of MDM2 and MDMX, ATSP-7041, which effectively activates the p53 pathway in tumors in vitro and in vivo. Specifically, ATSP-7041 binds both MDM2 and MDMX with nanomolar affinities, shows submicromolar cellular activities in cancer cell lines in the presence of serum, and demonstrates highly specific, on-target mechanism of action. A high resolution (1.7-Å) X-ray crystal structure reveals its molecular interactions with the target protein MDMX, including multiple contacts with key amino acids as well as a role for the hydrocarbon staple itself in target engagement. Most importantly, ATSP-7041 demonstrates robust p53-dependent tumor growth suppression in MDM2/MDMX-overexpressing xenograft cancer models, with a high correlation to on-target pharmacodynamic activity, and possesses favorable pharmacokinetic and tissue distribution properties. Overall, ATSP-7041 demonstrates in vitro and in vivo proof-of-concept that stapled peptides can be developed as therapeutically relevant inhibitors of protein-protein interaction and may offer a viable modality for cancer therapy.

Investigation of the ring-closing metathesis of peptides in water

A systematic study of the ring-closing metathesis (RCM) of unprotected oxytocin and crotalphine peptide analogues in water is reported. The replacement of cysteine with S-allyl cysteine enables RCM to proceed readily in water containing excess MgCl(2) with 30% t-BuOH as a co-solvent. The presence of the sulfur atom is vital for efficient aqueous RCM to occur, with non-sulfur containing analogues undergoing RCM in low yields.

N-(tert-butoxycarbonyl)-O-allyl-L-seryl-α-aminoisobutyryl-L-valine methyl ester: a protected tripeptide with an allylated serine residue

The title compound [systematic name (6S,12S)-methyl 6-(allyloxymethyl)-12-isopropyl-2,2,9,9-tetramethyl-4,7,10-trioxo-3-oxa-5,8,11-triazatridecan-13-oate], C(21)H(37)N(3)O(7), containing the little studied O-allyl-L-serine residue [Ser(All)], crystallizes in the monoclinic space group C2 with one molecule in the asymmetric unit. The compound is an analogue of the Ser140-Val142 segment of the water channel aquaporin-4 (AQP4). It forms a distorted type-II β-turn with a P(II)-3(10L)-P(II) backbone conformation (P(II) is polyproline II). The overall backbone conformation is markedly different from that of the CO(Pro139)-Val142 stretch of rat AQP4, but is quite similar to the corresponding segment of human AQP4, despite significant differences at the level of the individual residues. The side chain of the Ser(All) residue adopts a gauche conformation relative to the backbone CO-C(α) and C(α)-N bonds. The H atoms of the two CH(2) groups in the Ser(All) side chain are almost eclipsed. The crystal packing of the title compound is divided into one-molecule-thick layers, each layer having a hydrophilic core and distinct hydrophobic interfaces on either side.

1-(tert-But-oxy-carbon-yl)piperidine-4-carb-oxy-lic acid

In the title compound, C₁₁H₁₉NO₄, the piperidine ring adopts a chair conformation. In the crystal, mol­ecules are linked by inter­molecular O—H⋯O and C—H⋯O hydrogen bonds, forming a layer parallel to the bc plane.

Stabilized helical peptides: overview of the technologies and therapeutic promises

INTRODUCTION

Helical structures in proteins and naturally occurring peptides play a major role in a variety of biological processes by mediating interactions with proteins and other macromolecules such as nucleic acids and lipid membranes. The use of short synthetic peptides encompassing helical segments to modulate or disrupt such interactions, when associated with human diseases, represents great pharmacological interest.

AREAS COVERED

Multiple chemical approaches have been developed to increase the conformational and metabolic stabilities of helical peptides and to improve their biomedical potential. After a brief overview of these technologies and the most recent developments, this review will focus on the main therapeutic areas and targets and will discuss their promise.

EXPERT OPINION

Potential benefits associated with increased helix stability extend beyond simple affinity enhancement. Some peptidomimetic helices are being endowed with features desirable for cellular activity such as increased resistance to proteolysis and/or cell permeability. Recent advances in the field of peptide and related peptidomimetic helices are not just conceptual, but are likely to be of practical utility in the process of optimizing peptides as clinical candidates, and developing medium-size therapeutics.

Achieving cell penetration with distance-matching cysteine cross-linkers: a facile route to cell-permeable peptide dual inhibitors of Mdm2/Mdmx

We report the design of bisarylmethylene bromides as a new class of rigid, distance-matching cysteine cross-linkers. By cross-linking a peptide dual inhibitor of Mdm2/Mdmx containing cysteines at i,i+7 positions, dramatic enhancement in cell permeability was achieved, along with increased helicity and biological activity.

Synthesis and analysis of the membrane proximal external region epitopes of HIV-1

The membrane proximal external region (MPER) of gp41 abuts the viral membrane at the base of HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein spikes. The MPER is highly conserved and is rich in Trp and other lipophilic residues. The MPER is also required for the infection of host cells by HIV-1 and is the target of the broadly neutralizing antibodies, 4E10, 2F5, and Z13e1. These neutralizing antibodies are valuable tools for understanding relevant conformations of the MPER and for studying HIV-1 neutralization, but multiple approaches used to elicit MPER binding antibodies with similar neutralization properties have failed. Here we report our efforts to mimic the MPER using linear as well as constrained peptides. Unnatural amino acids were also introduced into the core epitope of 4E10 to probe requirements of antibody binding. Peptide analogs with C-terminal Api or Aib residues designed to be helical transmembrane (TM) domain surrogates exhibit enhanced binding to the 4E10 and Z13e1 antibodies. However, we find that placement of constrained amino acids at nonbinding sites within the core epitope significantly reduce binding. These results are relevant to an understanding of native MPER structure on HIV-1, and form a basis for a chemical synthesis approach to mimic MPER stricture and to construct an MPER-based vaccine.

Synthesis of all-hydrocarbon stapled α-helical peptides by ring-closing olefin metathesis

This protocol provides a detailed procedure for the preparation of stapled α-helical peptides, which have proven their potential as useful molecular probes and as next-generation therapeutics. Two crucial features of this protocol are (i) the construction of peptide substrates containing hindered α-methyl, α-alkenyl amino acids and (ii) the ring-closing olefin metathesis (RCM) of the resulting resin-bound peptide substrates. The stapling systems described in this protocol, namely bridging one or two turns of an α-helix, are highly adaptable to most peptide sequences, resulting in favorable RCM kinetics, helix stabilization and promotion of cellular uptake.

Building a bridge between peptide chemistry and organic chemistry: intramolecular macrocyclization reactions and supramolecular chemistry with helical peptide substrates

In our ongoing efforts to build a bridge between peptide chemistry and organic chemistry, we are currently investigating: (1) two types of intramolecular macrocyclization reactions in 3(10)-helical peptides, and (2) a peptido[2]rotaxane molecular machine as a supramolecular tool using a 3(10)-helical peptide as the axle. More specifically, we studied the following two reactions: (a) the intramolecular ring-closing olefin metathesis between two amino acid residues with side chains bearing an allyl group, and (b) the intramolecular Paternò-Yang photoreaction, using a benzophenone-based amino acid as a photoaffinity reagent for a Met residue. Both reactions involve formation of a new C--C bond. As for the supramolecular system examined, we were able to identify the two stations of a new peptido[2]rotaxane characterized by an -(Aib)(6)- axle and to reversibly switch the aromatic tetramide macrocyclic wheel from one station to the next. This article summarizes the information available in the literature from other groups and the published/unpublished data originated from our laboratory on these research areas.

Structural and pharmacological effects of ring-closing metathesis in peptides

Applications of ring-closing alkene metathesis (RCM) in acyclic α- and β-peptides and closely related systems are reviewed, with a special emphasis on the structural and pharmacological effects of cyclization by RCM.