Reversible Gas Uptake by a Nonporous Crystalline Solid Involving Multiple Changes in Covalent Bonding

Reversible Chromism of Tethered Ruthenium(II) Complexes in the Solid State

Tethered ruthenium(II) complexes [Ru(η⁶:κ¹-arene:N)Cl₂] (where arene:N is 2-aminobiphenyl (1) and 2-benzylpyridine (2)) can convert into their open-tethered chlorido counterparts [Ru(η⁶-arene:NH)Cl₃], 1·HCl and 2·HCl, at room temperature via solid-state reaction in the presence of HCl vapors. The reaction is accompanied by a change in color, is fully reversible, and crystallinity is maintained in both molecular materials. Organoruthenium tethers are presented as nonporous materials capable of capturing and releasing HCl reversibly in the crystalline solid state.

Reversible on/off conformational switching of pentafluorobenzoyl amide triggered by acid vapor and sublimation

Molecular switches composed of pentafluorobenzoyl amide can be controlled with an acid and sublimation in an on/off manner in the solid state.

Crystallographic Visualization of a Guest-Induced Solar-Driven Cycloaddition Reaction Based on a Recyclable Nonporous Coordination Polymer

Stimuli-responsive solids with adjustable photophysical properties are particularly attractive because they can be used as smart materials in anticounterfeiting, information storage, holographic imaging, and other fields. Herein, we report a unique nonporous coordination polymer, {[Ag(3,3'-dpe)](2,2'-Hbpdc)}_n (1; 3,3'-dpe = 1,2-dipyridin-3-ylethene and 2,2'-H₂bpdc = 2,2'-biphenyldicarboxylic acid), that can convert to an extremely photoreactive compound, 1·H₂O·MeCN (MeCN = acetonitrile), through guest capture. Upon irradiation of sunlight, 1·H₂O·MeCN can transform to {[Ag(3,3'-tpcb)_0.5](2,2'-Hbpdc)(H₂O)(MeCN)}_n (2·H₂O·MeCN; 3,3'-tpcb = 1,2,3,4-tetrapyridin-3-ylcyclobutane). 2·H₂O·MeCN can lose its solvent molecules to form 2 and further return to 1 at high temperature. Accompanied by direct visualization based on multistep single-crystal-to-single-crystal conversions, the recyclable crystalline solid exhibits remarkable fluorescence changes, which makes it a supramolecular switch for application in multiple anticounterfeiting.

Vapochromic crystals: understanding vapochromism from the perspective of crystal engineering

Vapochromic materials, which undergo colour and/or emission changes upon exposure to certain vapours or gases, have received increasing attention recently because of their wide range of applications in, e.g., chemical sensors, light-emitting diodes, and environmental monitors. Vapochromic crystals, as a specific kind of vapochromic materials, can be investigated from the perspective of crystal engineering to understand the mechanism of vapochromism. Moreover, understanding the vapochromism mechanism will be beneficial to design and prepare task-specific vapochromic crystals as one kind of low-cost 'electronic nose' to detect toxic gases or volatile organic compounds. This review provides important information in a broad scientific context to develop new vapochromic materials, which covers organometallic or coordination complexes and organic crystals, as well as the different mechanisms of the related vapochromic behaviour. In addition, recent examples of supramolecular vapochromic crystals and metal-organic-framework (MOFs) vapochromic crystals are introduced.

Effect of stepwise protonation of an N-containing ligand on the formation of metal–organic salts and coordination complexes in the solid state

Controlled synthesis of a series of metal–organic salts and coordination complexes is tuned by the protonation of ligand, and their transformations are induced by the solid–gas and concentration of [H⁺].

Tailoring the structures and transformations between copper complexes in gas–solid reactions and solid-state synthesis

A series of unusual structures and transformations between several copper salts and complexes induced in the solid–gas and solid-state reactions were investigated.

Stoichiometry mechanosynthesis and interconversion of metal salts containing [CuCl3(H2O)]− and [Cu2Cl8]4−

The mechanochemical interconversion of two salts was achieved by the addition of an appropriate amount of one of the corresponding components (HL or CuCl₂·2H₂O), and the progress of dynamic interconversion was revealed by PXRD, fluorescence and Raman spectroscopy.

Post-Synthetic Modification of Nonporous Adaptive Crystals of Pillar[4]arene[1]quinone by Capturing Vaporized Amines

Postsynthetic modification in crystalline solids without disruption of crystallinity is very important for exerting control that is unattainable over chemical transformation in solution. This has been achieved in porous crystalline frameworks via solid-solution reactions to endow them with multiple functions. However, this is rather rare in nonporous molecular crystals, especially via solid-vapor reactions. Herein, we report unique solid-vapor postsynthetic modification of nonporous adaptive crystals (NACs) of a pillar[4]arene[1]quinone (EtP4Q1) containing four inert 1,4-diethoxybenzene units and one active benzoquinone unit. Amine vapors that can be physically adsorbed by EtP4Q1 NACs react with the EtP4Q1 backbone via Michael addition with in situ formation of new crystal structures. First, amines are physically adsorbed into cavities of EtP4Q1 molecules and slowly react due to their juxtapsition with the benzoquinone units. Amines that are too bulky to enter EtP4Q1 NACs do not react. Moreover, the process displays both reactant-size and -shape selectivities because of the rigid cavity of EtP4Q1 and the different binding strengths of various amines with EtP4Q1.

Dynamic behaviour in nonporous hybrid metal–organic materials via mechanochemical and gas–solid reactions

Nonporous hybrid metal organic materials have been studied in the solid-state by mechanochemical reactions, chemisorption and release of HCl by heating. The dynamic behavior of the hybrid materials allows the breaking and formation of chemical bonds.

From helix to helical pores: solid-state crystalline conversions triggered by gas–solid reactions

Solid-state crystalline conversions of one-dimensional (1D) helical coordination polymers CuBIm–Cl and CuBIm–Br to a gyrodial metal–organic framework (MOF) STU-3 which is composed of Cu ions and Bim ligands are observed through a gas–solid reaction, where the gas is methylamine.

Arene Selectivity by a Flexible Coordination Polymer Host

The coordination polymers [Ag4 (O2 CCF3 )4 (phen)3 ]⋅ phen⋅arene (1⋅phen⋅arene) (phen=phenazine; arene=toluene, p-xylene or benzene) have been synthesised from the solution phase in a series of arene solvents and crystallographically characterised. By contrast, analogous syntheses from o-xylene and m-xylene as the solvent yield the solvent-free coordination polymer [Ag4 (O2 CCF3 )4 (phen)2 ] (2). Toluene, p-xylene and benzene have been successfully used in mixed-arene syntheses to template the formation of coordination polymers 1⋅phen⋅arene, which incorporate o- or m-xylene. The selectivity of 1⋅phen⋅arene for the arene guests was determined, through pairwise competition experiments, to be p-xylene>toluene≈benzene>o-xylene>m-xylene. The largest selectivity coefficient was determined as 14.2 for p-xylene:m-xylene and the smallest was 1.0 for toluene:benzene.

Accommodative Behavior of Non-porous Molecular crystal at Solid-Gas and Solid-Liquid Interface

Molecular crystals demonstrate drastically different behavior in solid and liquid state, mainly due to their difference in structural frameworks. Therefore, designing of unique structured molecular compound which can work at both these interfaces has been a challenge. Here, we present remarkable ‘molecular’ property by non-porous molecular solid crystal, dinuclear copper complex (C₆H₅CH(X)NH₂)₂CuCl₂, to reversibly ‘adsorb’ HCl gas at solid-gas interface as well as ‘accommodate’ azide anion at solid-liquid interface with crystal to crystal transformation. The latter process is driven by molecular recognition, self-assembly, and anchimeric assistance. The observed transformations are feasible due to breathing of inner and outer coordination sphere around metal center resulting in change in metal polyhedra for ‘accommodating’ guest molecule. These transformations cause changes in optical, magnetic, and/or ferroelectric property offering diversity in ‘sensing’ application. With the proposed underlying principles in these exceptional reversible and cyclic transformations, we prepared a series of compounds, can facilitate designing of novel multifunctional molecular materials.

Coordination polymer flexibility leads to polymorphism and enables a crystalline solid-vapour reaction: a multi-technique mechanistic study

Despite an absence of conventional porosity, the 1D coordination polymer [Ag4 (O2 C(CF2 )2 CF3 )4 (TMP)3 ] (1; TMP=tetramethylpyrazine) can absorb small alcohols from the vapour phase, which insert into AgO bonds to yield coordination polymers [Ag4 (O2 C(CF2 )2 CF3 )4 (TMP)3 (ROH)2 ] (1-ROH; R=Me, Et, iPr). The reactions are reversible single-crystal-to-single-crystal transformations. Vapour-solid equilibria have been examined by gas-phase IR spectroscopy (K=5.68(9)×10(-5) (MeOH), 9.5(3)×10(-6) (EtOH), 6.14(5)×10(-5) (iPrOH) at 295 K, 1 bar). Thermal analyses (TGA, DSC) have enabled quantitative comparison of two-step reactions 1-ROH→1→2, in which 2 is the 2D coordination polymer [Ag4 (O2 C(CF2 )2 CF3 )4 (TMP)2 ] formed by loss of TMP ligands exclusively from singly-bridging sites. Four polymorphic forms of 1 (1-A(LT) , 1-A(HT) , 1-B(LT) and 1-B(HT) ; HT=high temperature, LT=low temperature) have been identified crystallographically. In situ powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) studies of the 1-ROH→1→2 transformations indicate the role of the HT polymorphs in these reactions. The structural relationship between polymorphs, involving changes in conformation of perfluoroalkyl chains and a change in orientation of entire polymers (A versus B forms), suggests a mechanism for the observed reactions and a pathway for guest transport within the fluorous layers. Consistent with this pathway, optical microscopy and AFM studies on single crystals of 1-MeOH/1-A(HT) show that cracks parallel to the layers of interdigitated perfluoroalkyl chains develop during the MeOH release/uptake process.

Solvent-vapour-assisted pathways and the role of pre-organization in solid-state transformations of coordination polymers

A family of one-dimensional coordination polymers, [Ag4(O2C(CF2)2CF3)4(phenazine)2(arene) n ]·m(arene), 1 (arene = toluene or xylene), have been synthesized and crystallographically characterized. Arene guest loss invokes structural transformations to yield a pair of polymorphic coordination polymers [Ag4(O2C(CF2)2CF3)4(phenazine)2], 2a and/or 2b , with one- and two-dimensional architectures, respectively. The role of pre-organization of the polymer chains of 1 in the selectivity for formation of either polymorph is explored, and the templating effect of toluene and p-xylene over o-xylene or m-xylene in the formation of arene-containing architecture 1 is also demonstrated. The formation of arene-free phase 2b , not accessible in a phase-pure form through other means, is shown to be the sole product of loss of toluene from 1-tol·tol [Ag4(O2C(CF2)2CF3)4(phenazine)2(toluene)]·2(toluene), a phase containing toluene coordinated to Ag(I) in an unusual μ:η(1),η(1) manner. Solvent-vapour-assisted conversion between the polymorphic coordination polymers and solvent-vapour influence on the conversion of coordination polymers 1 to 2a and 2b is also explored. The transformations have been examined and confirmed by X-ray diffraction, NMR spectroscopy and thermal analyses, including in situ diffraction studies of some transformations.

Topochemical control in desolvation of coordination polymers

Reactions in the solid state are at the core of crystal engineering as they can result in new crystalline phases that are not always accessible by traditional solution methods. The work of Brammer and co-workers [Wright et al. (2015), IUCrJ, 2, 188-197] represents a clear example of this potential as applied to the synthesis of a silver-phenazine coordination polymer.

Selective CO2 gas adsorption in the narrow crystalline cavities of flexible peptide metallo-macrocycles

The BF₄⁻ salt of peptide Ni(ii)-macrocycle demonstrated selective CO₂ gas adsorption (ca. 6–7 molecules per macrocycle) into its narrow cavities.

Engineering lanthanide-optical centres in IRMOF-3 by post-synthetic modification

Infrared emitters based on IRMOF-3 are modified with 2-chloroacetic acid, glyoxylic acid, diethyl (ethoxymethylene)malonate, methyl vinyl ketone, and Eu³⁺& Nd³⁺.

Crystallographic studies of gas sorption in metal-organic frameworks

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are a class of porous crystalline materials of modular design. One of the primary applications of these materials is in the adsorption and separation of gases, with potential benefits to the energy, transport and medical sectors. In situ crystallography of MOFs under gas atmospheres has enabled the behaviour of the frameworks under gas loading to be investigated and has established the precise location of adsorbed gas molecules in a significant number of MOFs. This article reviews progress in such crystallographic studies, which has taken place over the past decade, but has its origins in earlier studies of zeolites, clathrates etc. The review considers studies by single-crystal or powder diffraction using either X-rays or neutrons. Features of MOFs that strongly affect gas sorption behaviour are discussed in the context of in situ crystallographic studies, specifically framework flexibility, and the presence of (organic) functional groups and unsaturated (open) metal sites within pores that can form specific interactions with gas molecules.

Vapochemically and mechanochemically reversible polymerization/depolymerization of S-Fe-Cu carbonyl clusters

A reversible vapochemical and mechanochemical solid-state transformation between a dppe-linked SFe3Cu2-based cluster [{(μ3-S)Fe3(CO)9}Cu2(dppe)] (2) and its 1D polymer [{(μ4-S)Fe3(CO)9}Cu2(dppe)(MeCN)2]n (3) was demonstrated, in which polymer 3 exhibited semi-conducting properties with an energy gap of 1.69 eV.

Diffusion of vaporous guests into a seemingly non-porous organic crystal

The tetragonal apohost phase of p-tert-butyltetramethoxythiacalix[4]arene absorbs hydrochloric acid and iodine.

Reversible and irreversible chemisorption in nonporous-crystalline hybrids

The tools of synthetic chemistry allow us to fine-tune the reactivity of molecules at a level of precision not yet accessible with inorganic solids. We have investigated hybrids that couple molecules to the superior thermal and mechanical properties of solids. Herein we present, to the best of our knowledge, the first demonstration of reactivity between hybrid perovskites and substrates. Reaction with iodine vapor results in a remarkable expansion of these materials (up to 36 % in volume) where new covalent CI bonds are formed with retention of crystallinity. These hybrids also show unusual examples of reversible chemisorption. Here, solid-state interactions extend the lifetime of molecules that cannot be isolated in solution. We have tuned the half-lives of the iodinated structures from 3 h to 3 days. These nonporous hybrids drive substrate capture and controlled release through chemical reactivity. We illustrate the strengths of the hybrid by considering radioactive iodine capture.

Tuning the magneto-structural properties of non-porous coordination polymers by HCl chemisorption

Responsive materials for which physical or chemical properties can be tuned by applying an external stimulus are attracting considerable interest in view of their potential applications as chemical switches or molecular sensors. A potential source of such materials is metal-organic frameworks. These porous coordination polymers permit the physisorption of guest molecules that can provoke subtle changes in their porous structure, thus affecting their physical properties. Here we show that the chemisorption of gaseous HCl molecules by a non-porous one-dimensional coordination polymer instigates drastic modifications in the magnetic properties of the material. These changes result from profound structural changes, involving cleavage and formation of covalent bonds, but with no disruption of crystallinity.