1
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Liu CC, Ye J, Cao H. Chemical Evolution of Enzyme-Catalyzed Glycosylation. Acc Chem Res 2024. [PMID: 38286791 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.3c00754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2024]
Abstract
ConspectusThe limited availability of structurally well-defined diverse glycans remains a major obstacle for deciphering biological functions as well as biomedical applications of carbohydrates. Despite tremendous progress that has been made in past decades, the synthesis of structurally well-defined complex glycans still represents one of the most challenging topics in synthetic chemistry. Chemical synthesis of glycans is a time-consuming and labor-intensive process that requires elaborate planning and skilled personnel. In contrast, glycosyltransferase-catalyzed enzymatic synthesis provides a more efficient, convenient, low-cost, and sustainable alternative to affording diverse and complex glycans. However, the existing methods are still insufficient to fulfill the increasing demand for specific synthetic glycan libraries necessary for functional glycomics research. This is mainly attributed to the inherent character of the glycan biosynthetic pathway. In nature, there are too many glycosyltransferases involved in the in vivo glycan synthesis, but only a small number of them are available for in vitro enzymatic synthesis. For instance, humans have over 200 glycosyltransferases, but only a few of them could be produced from the conventional bacterial expression system, and most of these membrane-associated enzymes could be overexpressed only in eukaryotic cells. Moreover, the glycan biosynthetic pathway is a nontemplate-driven process, which eventually ends up with heterogeneous glycan product mixtures. Therefore, it is not a practical solution for the in vitro enzymatic synthesis of complex glycans by simply copying the glycan biosynthetic pathway.In the past decade, we have tried to develop a simplified and transformable approach to the enzymatic modular assembly of a human glycan library. Despite the structural complexity of human glycans, the glycoinformatic analysis based on the known glycan structure database and the human glycosyltransferase database indicates that there are approximately 56 disaccharide patterns present in the human glycome and only 16 disaccharide linkages are required to account for over 80% of the total disaccharide fragments, while 35 disaccharide linkages are sufficient to cover over 95% of all disaccharide fragments of human glycome. Regardless of the substrate specificity, if one glycosyltransferase could be used for the synthesis of all of the same glycosidic linkages in human glycome, it will require only a few dozen glycosyltransferases for the assembly of entire human glycans. According to the glycobioinformatics analysis results, we rationally designed about two dozen enzyme modules for the synthesis of over 20 common glycosidic linkages in human glycome, in which each enzyme module contains a glycosyltransferase and a group of enzymes for the in situ generation of a nucleotide-activated sugar donor. By sequential glycosylation using orchestrated enzyme modules, we have completed the synthesis of over 200 structurally well-defined complex human glycans including blood group antigens, O-mannosyl glycans, human milk oligosaccharides, and others. To overcome the product microheterogeneity problem of enzymatic synthesis in the nontemplate-driven glycan biosynthetic pathway, we developed several substrate engineering strategies to control or manipulate the outcome of glycosyltransferase-catalyzed reactions for the precise synthesis of structurally well-defined isomeric complex glycans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang-Cheng Liu
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Carbohydrate-Based Medicine, and Shandong Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Glycobiology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Jinfeng Ye
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Carbohydrate-Based Medicine, and Shandong Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Glycobiology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Hongzhi Cao
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs of Ministry of Education, Shandong Key Laboratory of Glycoscience and Glycotechnology, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China
- Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts, Laoshan Laboratory, Qingdao 266237, China
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2
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Sletten ET, Fittolani G, Hribernik N, Dal Colle MCS, Seeberger PH, Delbianco M. Phosphates as Assisting Groups in Glycan Synthesis. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2024; 10:138-142. [PMID: 38292611 PMCID: PMC10823511 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.3c00896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 11/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/01/2024]
Abstract
In nature, phosphates are added to and cleaved from molecules to direct biological pathways. The concept was adapted to overcome limitations in the chemical synthesis of complex oligosaccharides. Phosphates were chemically placed on synthetic glycans to ensure site-specific enzymatic elongation by sialylation. In addition, the deliberate placement of phosphates helped to solubilize and isolate aggregating glycans. Upon traceless removal of the phosphates by enzymatic treatment with alkaline phosphatase, the native glycan structure was revealed, and the assembly of glycan nanostructures was triggered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric T. Sletten
- Department
of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute
of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Giulio Fittolani
- Department
of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute
of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Nives Hribernik
- Department
of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute
of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Marlene C. S. Dal Colle
- Department
of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute
of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität
Berlin, Arnimallee 22, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Peter H. Seeberger
- Department
of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute
of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität
Berlin, Arnimallee 22, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Martina Delbianco
- Department
of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute
of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
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3
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Chen X. Enabling Chemoenzymatic Strategies and Enzymes for Synthesizing Sialyl Glycans and Sialyl Glycoconjugates. Acc Chem Res 2024; 57:234-246. [PMID: 38127793 PMCID: PMC10795189 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.3c00614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2023] [Revised: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
Sialic acids are fascinating negatively charged nine-carbon monosaccharides. Sialic acid-containing glycans and glycoconjugates are structurally diverse, functionally important, and synthetically challenging molecules. We have developed highly efficient chemoenzymatic strategies that combine the power of chemical synthesis and enzyme catalysis to make sialic acids, sialyl glycans, sialyl glycoconjugates, and their derivatives more accessible, enabling the efforts to explore their functions and applications. The Account starts with a brief description of the structural diversity and the functional importance of naturally occurring sialic acids and sialosides. The development of one-pot multienzyme (OPME) chemoenzymatic sialylation strategies is then introduced, highlighting its advantages in synthesizing structurally diverse sialosides with a sialyltransferase donor substrate engineering tactic. With the strategy, systematic access to sialosides containing different sialic acid forms with modifications at C3/4/5/7/8/9, various internal glycans, and diverse sialyl linkages is now possible. Also briefly described is the combination of the OPME sialylation strategy with bacterial sialidases for synthesizing sialidase inhibitors. With the goal of simplifying the product purification process for enzymatic glycosylation reactions, glycosphingolipids that contain a naturally existing hydrophobic tag are attractive targets for chemoenzymatic total synthesis. A user-friendly highly efficient chemoenzymatic strategy is developed which involves three main processes, including chemical synthesis of lactosyl sphingosine as a water-soluble hydrophobic tag-containing intermediate, OPME enzymatic extension of its glycan component with a single C18-cartridge purification of the product, followed by a facile chemical acylation reaction. The strategy allows the introduction of different sialic acid forms and diverse fatty acyl chains into the products. Gram-scale synthesis has been demonstrated. OPME sialylation has also been demonstrated for the chemoenzymatic synthesis of sialyl glycopeptides and in vitro enzymatic N-glycan processing for the formation of glycoproteins with disialylated biantennary complex-type N-glycans. For synthesizing human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) which are glycans with a free reducing end, acceptor substrate engineering and process engineering strategies are developed, which involve the design of a hydrophobic tag that can be easily installed into the acceptor substrate to allow facile purification of the product from enzymatic reactions and can be conveniently removed in the final step to produce target molecules. The process engineering involves heat-inactivation of enzymes in the intermediate steps in multistep OPME reactions for the production of long-chain sialoside targets in a single reaction pot and with a single C18-cartridge purification process. In addition, a chemoenzymatic synthon strategy has been developed. It involves the design of a derivative of the sialyltransferase donor substrate precursor, which is tolerated by enzymes in OPME reactions, introduced to enzymatic products, and then chemically converted to the desired target structures in the final step. The chemoenzymatic synthon approach has been used together with the acceptor substrate engineering method in the synthesis of complex bacterial glycans containing sialic acids, legionaminic acids, and derivatives. The biocatalysts characterized and their engineered mutants developed by the Chen group are described, with highlights on synthetically useful enzymes. We anticipate further development of chemoenzymatic strategies and biocatalysts to enable exploration of the sialic acid space.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi Chen
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
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4
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Savelyeva NY, Shpirt AM, Orlova AV, Chizhov AO, Kononov LO. Synthesis of triazole-linked pseudo-oligosialic acid derivatives. Russ Chem Bull 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11172-022-3590-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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5
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Zhao T, Masuda T, Takai M. pH-Responsive Water-Soluble Polymer Carriers for Cell-Selective Metabolic Sialylation Labeling. Anal Chem 2021; 93:15420-15429. [PMID: 34727692 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c03261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Cell-surface sialic acids can be metabolically labeled and subsequently modified using bioorthogonal chemistry. The method has great potential for targeted therapy and imaging; however, distinguishing the sialylation of specific cells remains a major challenge. Here, we described a cell-selective metabolic sialylation labeling strategy based on water-soluble polymer carriers presented with pH-responsive N-azidoacetylmannosamine (ManNAz) release. 2-Methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine contributed to increased water solubility and reduced nonspecific attachment to cells. Lactobionic acid residues, used for cell selectivity, recognized overexpressed receptors on target hepatoma cells and mediated cellular internalization. ManNAz caged by acidic pH-responsive carbonated ester linkage on the polymer was released inside target cells and expressed as azido sialic acid. Additionally, longer copolymer carriers enhanced the metabolic labeling efficiency of sialylation. This approach provides a platform for cell-selective labeling of sialylation and can be applied to high-resolution bioimaging and targeted therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingbi Zhao
- Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
| | - Tsukuru Masuda
- Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
| | - Madoka Takai
- Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
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6
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Liu M, Qin X, Ye XS. Glycan Assembly Strategy: From Concept to Application. CHEM REC 2021; 21:3256-3277. [PMID: 34498347 DOI: 10.1002/tcr.202100183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Glycans have been hot topics in recent years due to their exhibition of numerous biological activities. However, the heterogeneity of their natural source and the complexity of their chemical synthesis impede the progress in their biological research. Thus, the development of glycan assembly strategies to acquire plenty of structurally well-defined glycans is an important issue in carbohydrate chemistry. In this review, the latest advances in glycan assembly strategies from concepts to their applications in carbohydrate synthesis, including chemical and enzymatic/chemo-enzymatic approaches, as well as solution-phase and solid-phase/tag-assisted synthesis, are summarized. Furthermore, the automated glycan assembly techniques are also outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingli Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Xue Yuan Road No. 38, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Xianjin Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Xue Yuan Road No. 38, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Xin-Shan Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Xue Yuan Road No. 38, Beijing, 100191, China
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7
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Li W, McArthur JB, Chen X. Strategies for chemoenzymatic synthesis of carbohydrates. Carbohydr Res 2018; 472:86-97. [PMID: 30529493 DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2018.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Revised: 11/22/2018] [Accepted: 11/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Carbohydrates are structurally complex but functionally important biomolecules. Therefore, they have been challenging but attractive synthetic targets. While substantial progress has been made on advancing chemical glycosylation methods, incorporating enzymes into carbohydrate synthetic schemes has become increasingly practical as more carbohydrate biosynthetic and metabolic enzymes as well as their mutants with synthetic application are identified and expressed for preparative and large-scale synthesis. Chemoenzymatic strategies that integrate the flexibility of chemical derivatization with enzyme-catalyzed reactions have been extremely powerful. Briefly summarized here are our experiences on developing one-pot multienzyme (OPME) systems and representative chemoenzymatic strategies from others using glycosyltransferase-catalyzed reactions for synthesizing diverse structures of oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, and glycoconjugates. These strategies allow the synthesis of complex carbohydrates including those containing naturally occurring carbohydrate postglycosylational modifications (PGMs) and non-natural functional groups. By combining these srategies with facile purification schemes, synthetic access to the diverse space of carbohydrate structures can be automated and will not be limited to specialists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanqing Li
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - John B McArthur
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Xi Chen
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
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8
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Tang J, Ozhegov E, Liu Y, Wang D, Yao X, Sun XL. Straightforward Synthesis of N-Glycan Polymers from Free Glycans via Cyanoxyl Free Radical-Mediated Polymerization. ACS Macro Lett 2017; 6:107-111. [PMID: 35632901 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.6b00928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
We report a straightforward synthesis of N-glycan polymers from free glycans via glycosylamine intermediates followed by acrylation and polymerization via cyanoxyl-mediated free radical polymerization (CMFRP) in one-pot fashion. No protection and deprotection were used in either glycomonomer or glycopolymer synthesis. A typical synthetic procedure for N-glycan polymers from free monosaccharide and disaccharide, Glc, Gal, Man, GlcNAc, and Lac, was demonstrated. In addition, enzymatic sialylation of the Lac-containing N-glycan polymers and their anti-influenza virus hemagglutination activities were investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinshan Tang
- Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine & Natural Products, College of Pharmacy, Jinan University, West 601, Huangpu Avenue, Guangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Evgeny Ozhegov
- Department
of Chemistry, Chemical and Biomedical Engineering and Center for Gene
Regulation in Health and Disease (GRHD), Cleveland State University, 2121 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio 44115, United States
| | - Yang Liu
- Key
Laboratory of Structure-Based Drugs Design and Discovery of Ministry
of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, People’s Republic of China
| | - Dan Wang
- Department
of Chemistry, Chemical and Biomedical Engineering and Center for Gene
Regulation in Health and Disease (GRHD), Cleveland State University, 2121 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio 44115, United States
| | - Xinsheng Yao
- Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine & Natural Products, College of Pharmacy, Jinan University, West 601, Huangpu Avenue, Guangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xue-Long Sun
- Department
of Chemistry, Chemical and Biomedical Engineering and Center for Gene
Regulation in Health and Disease (GRHD), Cleveland State University, 2121 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio 44115, United States
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9
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da Rosa R, de Moraes MH, Zimmermann LA, Schenkel EP, Steindel M, Bernardes LSC. Design and synthesis of a new series of 3,5-disubstituted isoxazoles active against Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania amazonensis. Eur J Med Chem 2017; 128:25-35. [PMID: 28152426 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2017.01.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2016] [Revised: 12/18/2016] [Accepted: 01/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Chagas disease and leishmaniasis are neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) endemic in developing countries. Although there are drugs available for their treatment, efforts on finding new efficacious therapies are continuous. The natural lignans grandisin (1) and veraguensin (2) show activity against trypomastigote T. cruzi and their scaffold has been used as inspiration to design new derivatives with improved potency and chemical properties. We describe here the planning and microwave-irradiated synthesis of 26 isoxazole derivatives based on the structure of the lignans 1 and 2. In addition, the in vitro evaluation against culture trypomastigotes and intracellular amastigotes of T. cruzi and intracellular amastigotes of L. amazonensis and L. infantum is reported. Among the synthesized derivatives, compounds 17 (IC50 = 5.26 μM for T. cruzi), 29 (IC50 = 1.74 μM for T. cruzi) and 31 (IC50 = 1.13 μM for T. cruzi and IC50 = 5.08 μM for L. amazonensis) were the most active and were also evaluated against recombinant trypanothione reductase of T. cruzi in a preliminary study of their mechanism of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael da Rosa
- Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, 88040-900 SC, Brazil
| | - Milene Höehr de Moraes
- Protozoology Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, 88040-900 SC, Brazil
| | - Lara Almida Zimmermann
- Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, 88040-900 SC, Brazil
| | - Eloir Paulo Schenkel
- Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, 88040-900 SC, Brazil
| | - Mario Steindel
- Protozoology Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, 88040-900 SC, Brazil
| | - Lílian Sibelle Campos Bernardes
- Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, 88040-900 SC, Brazil.
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10
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Lutteroth KR, Harris PWR, Wright TH, Kaur H, Sparrow K, Yang SH, Cooper GJS, Brimble MA. Incorporation of ‘click’ chemistry glycomimetics dramatically alters triple-helix stability in an adiponectin model peptide. Org Biomol Chem 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c7ob01388d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A striking decrease in thermal stability was observed upon incorporation of triazole-linked galactosylated-lysine into an adiponectin model peptide, suggesting possible applications of ‘click’ glycomimetics in bioengineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine R. Lutteroth
- School of Chemical Sciences
- The University of Auckland
- Auckland
- New Zealand
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery
| | - Paul W. R. Harris
- School of Chemical Sciences
- The University of Auckland
- Auckland
- New Zealand
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery
| | - Tom H. Wright
- School of Chemical Sciences
- The University of Auckland
- Auckland
- New Zealand
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery
| | - Harveen Kaur
- School of Chemical Sciences
- The University of Auckland
- Auckland
- New Zealand
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery
| | - Kevin Sparrow
- School of Chemical Sciences
- The University of Auckland
- Auckland
- New Zealand
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery
| | - Sung-Hyun Yang
- School of Chemical Sciences
- The University of Auckland
- Auckland
- New Zealand
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery
| | - Garth J. S. Cooper
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery
- The University of Auckland
- Auckland
- New Zealand
- Centre for Advanced Discovery & Experimental Therapeutics (CADET)
| | - Margaret A. Brimble
- School of Chemical Sciences
- The University of Auckland
- Auckland
- New Zealand
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery
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11
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Shivatare SS, Chang SH, Tsai TI, Tseng SY, Shivatare VS, Lin YS, Cheng YY, Ren CT, Lee CCD, Pawar S, Tsai CS, Shih HW, Zeng YF, Liang CH, Kwong PD, Burton DR, Wu CY, Wong CH. Modular synthesis of N-glycans and arrays for the hetero-ligand binding analysis of HIV antibodies. Nat Chem 2016; 8:338-46. [PMID: 27001729 DOI: 10.1038/nchem.2463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2015] [Accepted: 01/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
A new class of broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) from HIV donors has been reported to target the glycans on gp120--a glycoprotein found on the surface of the virus envelope--thus renewing hope of developing carbohydrate-based HIV vaccines. However, the version of gp120 used in previous studies was not from human T cells and so the glycosylation pattern could be somewhat different to that found in the native system. Moreover, some antibodies recognized two different glycans simultaneously and this cannot be detected with the commonly used glycan microarrays on glass slides. Here, we have developed a glycan microarray on an aluminium-oxide-coated glass slide containing a diverse set of glycans, including homo- and mixed N-glycans (high-mannose, hybrid and complex types) that were prepared by modular chemo-enzymatic methods to detect the presence of hetero-glycan binding behaviours. This new approach allows rapid screening and identification of optimal glycans recognized by neutralizing antibodies, and could speed up the development of HIV-1 vaccines targeting cell surface glycans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sachin S Shivatare
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, 128 Academia Road, Section 2, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan.,Chemical Biology and Molecular Biophysics, Taiwan International Graduate Program, Academia Sinica, Taiwan.,Institute of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan University, 1 Roosevelt Road, Section 4, Taipei, 106, Taiwan.,CHO Pharma Inc., Park Street, Nangang District, Taipei 11503, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Huang Chang
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, 128 Academia Road, Section 2, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan.,Institute of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan University, 1 Roosevelt Road, Section 4, Taipei, 106, Taiwan
| | - Tsung-I Tsai
- The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
| | - Susan Yu Tseng
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, 128 Academia Road, Section 2, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan
| | - Vidya S Shivatare
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, 128 Academia Road, Section 2, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan
| | - Yih-Shyan Lin
- CHO Pharma Inc., Park Street, Nangang District, Taipei 11503, Taiwan
| | - Yang-Yu Cheng
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, 128 Academia Road, Section 2, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Tai Ren
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, 128 Academia Road, Section 2, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan
| | - Chang-Chun David Lee
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, 128 Academia Road, Section 2, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan
| | - Sujeet Pawar
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, 128 Academia Road, Section 2, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan.,Chemical Biology and Molecular Biophysics, Taiwan International Graduate Program, Academia Sinica, Taiwan
| | - Charng-Sheng Tsai
- CHO Pharma Inc., Park Street, Nangang District, Taipei 11503, Taiwan
| | - Hao-Wei Shih
- CHO Pharma Inc., Park Street, Nangang District, Taipei 11503, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Fang Zeng
- CHO Pharma Inc., Park Street, Nangang District, Taipei 11503, Taiwan
| | - Chi-Hui Liang
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, 128 Academia Road, Section 2, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan.,The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
| | - Peter D Kwong
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Dennis R Burton
- The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
| | - Chung-Yi Wu
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, 128 Academia Road, Section 2, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan
| | - Chi-Huey Wong
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, 128 Academia Road, Section 2, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan.,The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
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12
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Narla SN, Sun XL. Oriented Immobilized Sialyloligo-macroligand Microarray. Methods Mol Biol 2015; 1367:195-206. [PMID: 26537475 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-3130-9_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
Abstract
Silaic acid is the most common terminal glycan on cell surface glycoproteins and glycolipids, involving in many biological processes. Studying interactions between multivalent sialic acid scaffolds and proteins binding to it will give incredible information in understanding the biological process the sialic acid is involved in. Here we describe chemoenzymatic synthesis of chain-end functionalized sialyllactose-containing glycopolymers with different linkages and their oriented immobilization for glycoarray and SPR-based glyco-biosensor applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satya Nandana Narla
- Department of Chemistry, Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease (GRHD), Cleveland State University, 2121 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH, 44115, USA
| | - Xue-Long Sun
- Department of Chemistry, Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease (GRHD), Cleveland State University, 2121 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH, 44115, USA.
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13
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Morotti AL, Lang KL, Carvalho I, Schenkel EP, Bernardes LS. Semi-Synthesis of new glycosidic triazole derivatives of dihydrocucurbitacin B. Tetrahedron Lett 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2014.11.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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14
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Huang X, Xue C, Fu C, Ma S. A concise construction of carbohydrate-tethered axially chiral allenes via copper catalysis. Org Chem Front 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5qo00164a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Here we observed that CuBr2 may smoothly catalyze the highly diastereoselective three-component reaction of carbohydrates bearing a terminal alkyne unit, aliphatic or aromatic aldehydes, and (R) or (S)-α,α-diphenylprolinol, affording carbohydrates bearing the chiral 1,3-substituted allene entity in 94–99% de.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Huang
- Laboratory of Molecular Recognition and Synthesis
- Department of Chemistry
- Zhejiang University
- Hangzhou 310027
- People's Republic of China
| | - Can Xue
- Laboratory of Molecular Recognition and Synthesis
- Department of Chemistry
- Zhejiang University
- Hangzhou 310027
- People's Republic of China
| | - Chunling Fu
- Laboratory of Molecular Recognition and Synthesis
- Department of Chemistry
- Zhejiang University
- Hangzhou 310027
- People's Republic of China
| | - Shengming Ma
- Laboratory of Molecular Recognition and Synthesis
- Department of Chemistry
- Zhejiang University
- Hangzhou 310027
- People's Republic of China
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Ibarra-Soza JM, Morris AA, Jayalath P, Peacock H, Conrad WE, Donald MB, Kurth MJ, Beal PA. 7-Substituted 8-aza-7-deazaadenosines for modification of the siRNA major groove. Org Biomol Chem 2012; 10:6491-7. [PMID: 22766576 DOI: 10.1039/c2ob25647a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Here we describe the synthesis of new 7-substituted 8-aza-7-deazaadenosine ribonucleoside phosphoramidites and their use in generating major groove-modified duplex RNAs. A 7-ethynyl analog leads to further structural diversification of the RNA via post-automated RNA synthesis azide-alkyne cycloaddition reactions. In addition, we report preliminary studies on the effects of eight different purine 7-position modifications on RNA duplex stability and pairing specificity. Finally, the effect on RNAi activity of this type of modification at eight different positions in an siRNA guide strand has been explored. Analogs were identified with large 7-position substituents that maintain adenosine pairing specificity and are well-tolerated at specific positions in an siRNA guide strand.
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Affiliation(s)
- José M Ibarra-Soza
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, California 95616, USA
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Narla SN, Sun XL. Immobilized sialyloligo-macroligand and its protein binding specificity. Biomacromolecules 2012; 13:1675-82. [PMID: 22519294 DOI: 10.1021/bm3003896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
We report a chemoenzymatic synthesis of chain-end functionalized sialyllactose-containing glycopolymers with different linkages and their oriented immobilization for glycoarray and SPR-based glyco-biosensor applications. Specifically, O-cyanate chain-end functionalized sialyllactose-containing glycopolymers were synthesized by enzymatic α2,3- and α2,6-sialylation of a lactose-containing glycopolymer that was synthesized by cyanoxyl-mediated free radical polymerization. (1)H NMR showed almost quantitative α2,3- and α2,6-sialylation. The O-cyanate chain-end functionalized sialyllactose-containing glycopolymers were printed onto amine-functionalized glass slides via isourea bond formation for glycoarray formation. Specific protein binding activity of the arrays was confirmed with α2,3- and α2,6-sialyl specific binding lectins together with inhibition assays. Further, immobilizing O-cyanate chain-end functionalized sialyllactose-containing glycopolymers onto amine-modified SPR chip via isourea bond formation afforded SPR-based glyco-biosensor, which showed specific binding activity for lectins and influenza viral hemagglutinins (HA). These sialyloligo-macroligand derived glycoarray and SPR-based glyco-biosensor are closely to mimic 3D nature presentation of sialyloligosaccharides and will provide important high-throughput tools for virus diagnosis and potential antiviral drug candidates screening applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satya Nandana Narla
- Department of Chemistry, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, Ohio 44115, USA
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Sialic acid metabolism and sialyltransferases: natural functions and applications. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2012; 94:887-905. [PMID: 22526796 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-012-4040-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 196] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2012] [Revised: 03/16/2012] [Accepted: 03/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Sialic acids are a family of negatively charged monosaccharides which are commonly presented as the terminal residues in glycans of the glycoconjugates on eukaryotic cell surface or as components of capsular polysaccharides or lipooligosaccharides of some pathogenic bacteria. Due to their important biological and pathological functions, the biosynthesis, activation, transfer, breaking down, and recycle of sialic acids are attracting increasing attention. The understanding of the sialic acid metabolism in eukaryotes and bacteria leads to the development of metabolic engineering approaches for elucidating the important functions of sialic acid in mammalian systems and for large-scale production of sialosides using engineered bacterial cells. As the key enzymes in biosynthesis of sialylated structures, sialyltransferases have been continuously identified from various sources and characterized. Protein crystal structures of seven sialyltransferases have been reported. Wild-type sialyltransferases and their mutants have been applied with or without other sialoside biosynthetic enzymes for producing complex sialic acid-containing oligosaccharides and glycoconjugates. This mini-review focuses on current understanding and applications of sialic acid metabolism and sialyltransferases.
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Carbohydrate synthesis and biosynthesis technologies for cracking of the glycan code: recent advances. Biotechnol Adv 2012; 31:17-37. [PMID: 22484115 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2012.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2011] [Revised: 03/06/2012] [Accepted: 03/20/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The glycan code of glycoproteins can be conceptually defined at molecular level by the sequence of well characterized glycans attached to evolutionarily predetermined amino acids along the polypeptide chain. Functional consequences of protein glycosylation are numerous, and include a hierarchy of properties from general physicochemical characteristics such as solubility, stability and protection of the polypeptide from the environment up to specific glycan interactions. Definition of the glycan code for glycoproteins has been so far hampered by the lack of chemically defined glycoprotein glycoforms that proved to be extremely difficult to purify from natural sources, and the total chemical synthesis of which has been hitherto possible only for very small molecular species. This review summarizes the recent progress in chemical and chemoenzymatic synthesis of complex glycans and their protein conjugates. Progress in our understanding of the ways in which a particular glycoprotein glycoform gives rise to a unique set of functional properties is now having far reaching implications for the biotechnology of important glycodrugs such as therapeutical monoclonal antibodies, glycoprotein hormones, carbohydrate conjugates used for vaccination and other practically important protein-carbohydrate conjugates.
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Harvey DJ. Analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry: an update for 2007-2008. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2012; 31:183-311. [PMID: 21850673 DOI: 10.1002/mas.20333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2010] [Revised: 01/04/2011] [Accepted: 01/04/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
This review is the fifth update of the original review, published in 1999, on the application of MALDI mass spectrometry to the analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates and brings coverage of the literature to the end of 2008. The first section of the review covers fundamental studies, fragmentation of carbohydrate ions, use of derivatives and new software developments for analysis of carbohydrate spectra. Among newer areas of method development are glycan arrays, MALDI imaging and the use of ion mobility spectrometry. The second section of the review discusses applications of MALDI MS to the analysis of different types of carbohydrate. Specific compound classes that are covered include carbohydrate polymers from plants, N- and O-linked glycans from glycoproteins, biopharmaceuticals, glycated proteins, glycolipids, glycosides and various other natural products. There is a short section on the use of MALDI mass spectrometry for the study of enzymes involved in glycan processing and a section on the use of MALDI MS to monitor products of the chemical synthesis of carbohydrates with emphasis on carbohydrate-protein complexes and glycodendrimers. Corresponding analyses by electrospray ionization now appear to outnumber those performed by MALDI and the amount of literature makes a comprehensive review on this technique impractical. However, most of the work relating to sample preparation and glycan synthesis is equally relevant to electrospray and, consequently, those proposing analyses by electrospray should also find material in this review of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Harvey
- Oxford Glycobiology Institute, Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QU, UK.
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Flexibility of Substrate Binding of Cytosine-5′-Monophosphate-N-Acetylneuraminate Synthetase (CMP-Sialate Synthetase) from Neisseria meningitidis: An Enabling Catalyst for the Synthesis of Neo-sialoconjugates. Adv Synth Catal 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/adsc.201100412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Shao C, Wang X, Zhang Q, Luo S, Zhao J, Hu Y. Acid-base jointly promoted copper(I)-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition. J Org Chem 2011; 76:6832-6. [PMID: 21793533 DOI: 10.1021/jo200869a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
In this novel acid-base jointly promoted CuAAC, the combination of CuI/DIPEA/HOAc was developed as a highly efficient catalytic system. The functions of DIPEA and HOAc have been assigned, and HOAc was recognized to accelerate the conversions of the C-Cu bond-containing intermediates and buffer the basicity of DIPEA. As a result, all drawbacks occurring in the popular catalytic system CuI/NR(3) were overcome easily.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changwei Shao
- Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, P. R. China
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Cecioni S, Oerthel V, Iehl J, Holler M, Goyard D, Praly JP, Imberty A, Nierengarten JF, Vidal S. Synthesis of dodecavalent fullerene-based glycoclusters and evaluation of their binding properties towards a bacterial lectin. Chemistry 2011; 17:3252-61. [PMID: 21328503 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201003258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2010] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Multivalency is playing a major role in biological processes and particularly in lectin-carbohydrate interactions. The design of high-affinity ligands of lectins should provide molecules capable of interfering with these biological processes and potentially inhibit bacterial or viral infections. Azide-alkyne "click" chemistry was applied to the synthesis of dodecavalent fullerene-based glycoclusters. The conjugation could be efficiently performed from alkyne or azide functions on either partners (i.e. hexakis-fullerene adduct or glycoside). PA-IL is a bacterial lectin from the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa and is involved in the recognition of glycoconjugates on human tissues. The glycoclusters obtained were evaluated as ligands of PA-IL and for their potential for competing with its binding to glycosylated surfaces. The affinities measured by hemagglutination inhibition assay (HIA), enzyme-linked lectin assay (ELLA), and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) displayed a significant "glycoside cluster effect" with up to a 12,000-fold increase in binding when comparing a monovalent carbohydrate reference probe with a dodecavalent fullerene-based glycocluster, albeit with some differences depending on the analytical technique.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samy Cecioni
- Institut de Chimie et Biochimie Moléculaires et Supramoléculaires, Laboratoire de Chimie, Organique 2-Glycochimie, UMR 5246, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 and CNRS, 43 Boulevard du 11 Novembre 1918, 69622, Villeurbanne, France
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Montenegro H, Ramírez-López P, de la Torre M, Asenjo M, Sierra M. Two Versatile and Parallel Approaches to Highly Symmetrical Open and Closed Natural Product-Based Structures. Chemistry 2010; 16:3798-814. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.200903264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Muthana S, Cao H, Chen X. Recent progress in chemical and chemoenzymatic synthesis of carbohydrates. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2009; 13:573-81. [PMID: 19833544 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2009.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2009] [Revised: 08/28/2009] [Accepted: 09/05/2009] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The important roles that carbohydrates play in biological processes and their potential application in diagnosis, therapeutics, and vaccine development have made them attractive synthetic targets. Despite ongoing challenges, tremendous progresses have been made in recent years for the synthesis of carbohydrates. The chemical glycosylation methods have become more sophisticated and the synthesis of oligosaccharides has become more predictable. Simplified one-pot glycosylation strategy and automated synthesis are increasingly used to obtain biologically important glycans. On the other hand, chemoenzymatic synthesis continues to be a powerful alternative for obtaining complex carbohydrates. This review highlights recent progress in chemical and chemoenzymatic synthesis of carbohydrates with a particular focus on the methods developed for the synthesis of oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, glycolipids, and glycosylated natural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saddam Muthana
- Department of Chemistry, One Shields Avenue, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, United States
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Muthana S, Yu H, Cao H, Cheng J, Chen X. Chemoenzymatic Synthesis of a New Class of Macrocyclic Oligosaccharides. J Org Chem 2009; 74:2928-36. [DOI: 10.1021/jo8027856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Saddam Muthana
- Department of Chemistry, One Shields Avenue, University of California, Davis, California 95616
| | - Hai Yu
- Department of Chemistry, One Shields Avenue, University of California, Davis, California 95616
| | - Hongzhi Cao
- Department of Chemistry, One Shields Avenue, University of California, Davis, California 95616
| | - Jiansong Cheng
- Department of Chemistry, One Shields Avenue, University of California, Davis, California 95616
| | - Xi Chen
- Department of Chemistry, One Shields Avenue, University of California, Davis, California 95616
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Mizanur RM, Pohl NL. Bacterial CMP-sialic acid synthetases: production, properties, and applications. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2008; 80:757-65. [PMID: 18716769 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-008-1643-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2008] [Revised: 07/25/2008] [Accepted: 07/30/2008] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Sialic acids are abundant nine-carbon sugars expressed terminally on glycoconjugates of eukaryotic cells and are crucial for a variety of cell biological functions such as cell-cell adhesion, intracellular signaling, and in regulation of glycoproteins stability. In bacteria, N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac) polymers are important virulence factors. Cytidine 5'-monophosphate (CMP)-N-acetylneuraminic acid synthetase (CSS; EC 2.7.7.43), the key enzyme that synthesizes CMP-N-acetylneuraminic acid, the donor molecule for numerous sialyltransferase reactions, is present in both prokaryotes and eukaryotic systems. Herein, we emphasize the source, function, and biotechnological applications of CSS enzymes from bacterial sources. To date, only a few CSS from pathogenic bacterial species such as Neisseria meningitidis, Escherichia coli, group B streptococci, Haemophilus ducreyi, and Pasteurella hemolytica and an enzyme from nonpathogenic bacterium, Clostridium thermocellum, have been described. Overall, the enzymes from both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria share common catalytic properties such as their dependency on divalent cation, temperature and pH profiles, and catalytic mechanisms. The enzymes, however, can be categorized as smaller and larger enzymes depending on their molecular weight. The larger enzymes in some cases are bifunctional; they have exhibited acetylhydrolase activity in addition to their sugar nucleotidyltransferase activity. The CSSs are important enzymes for the chemoenzymatic synthesis of various sialooligosaccharides of significance in biotechnology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahman M Mizanur
- Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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