1
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M Meirovich M, Bachar O, Shemesh M, Cohen Y, Popik A, Yehezkeli O. Light-driven, bias-free nitrogenase-based bioelectrochemical cell for ammonia generation. Biosens Bioelectron 2024; 255:116254. [PMID: 38569252 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2024.116254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2024] [Revised: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/05/2024]
Abstract
Nitrogen fixation is a key process that sustains life on Earth. Nitrogenase is the sole enzyme capable of fixing nitrogen under ambient conditions. Extensive research efforts have been dedicated to elucidating the enzyme mechanism and its artificial activation through high applied voltage, photochemistry, or strong reducing agents. Harnessing light irradiation to minimize the required external bias can lower the process's high energy investment. Herein, we present the development of photo-bioelectrochemical cells (PBECs) utilizing BiVO4/CoP or CdS/NiO photoanodes for nitrogenase activation toward N2 fixation. The constructed PBEC based on BiVO4/CoP photoanode requires minimal external bias (200 mV) and suppresses O2 generation that allows efficient activation of the nitrogenase enzyme, using glucose as an electron donor. In a second developed PBEC configuration, CdS/NiO photoanode was used, enabling bias-free activation of the nitrogenase-based cathode to produce 100 μM of ammonia at a faradaic efficiency (FE) of 12%. The ammonia production was determined by a commonly used fluorescence probe and further validated using 1H-NMR spectroscopy. The presented PBECs lay the foundation for biotic-abiotic systems to directly activate enzymes toward value-added chemicals by light-driven reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matan M Meirovich
- Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, 3200003, Haifa, Israel
| | - Oren Bachar
- Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, 3200003, Haifa, Israel
| | - Mor Shemesh
- Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, 3200003, Haifa, Israel
| | - Yifat Cohen
- Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, 3200003, Haifa, Israel
| | - Alice Popik
- Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, 3200003, Haifa, Israel
| | - Omer Yehezkeli
- Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, 3200003, Haifa, Israel; Russell Berrie Nanotechnology Institute, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, 3200003, Haifa, Israel; The Nancy and Stephen Grand Technion Energy Program, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, 3200003, Haifa, Israel.
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2
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Johansen C, Peters JC. Catalytic Reduction of Cyanide to Ammonia and Methane at a Mononuclear Fe Site. J Am Chem Soc 2024; 146:5343-5354. [PMID: 38361429 PMCID: PMC10910527 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c12395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Revised: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
Nitrogenase enzymes catalyze nitrogen reduction (N2R) to ammonia and also the reduction of non-native substrates, including the 7H+/6e- reduction of cyanide to CH4 and NH3. CN- and N2 are isoelectronic, and it is hence fascinating to compare the mechanisms of synthetic Fe catalysts capable of both CN- and N2 reduction. Here, we describe the catalytic reduction of CN- to NH3 and CH4 by a highly selective (P3Si)Fe(CN) catalyst (P3Si represents a tris(phosphine)silyl ligand). Catalysis is driven in the presence of excess acid ([Ph2NH2]OTf) and reductant ((C6H6)2Cr), with turnover as high as 73 demonstrated. This catalyst system is also modestly competent for N2R and structurally related to other tris(phosphine)Fe-based N2R catalysts. The choice of catalyst and reductant is important to observe high yields. Mechanistic studies elucidate several intermediates of CN- reduction, including iron isocyanides (P3SiFeCNH+/0) and terminal iron aminocarbynes (P3SiFeCNH2+/0). Aminocarbynes are isoelectronic to iron hydrazidos (Fe═N-NH2+/0), which have been invoked as selectivity-determining intermediates of N2R (NH3 versus N2H4 products). For the present CN- reduction catalysis, reduction of aminocarbyne P3SiFeCNH2+ is proposed to be rate but not selectivity contributing. Instead, by comparison with the reactivity of a methylated aminocarbyne analogue (P3SiFeCNMe2), and associated computational studies, formation of a Fischer carbene (P3SiFeC(H)(NH2)+) intermediate that is on path for either CH4 and NH3 (6 e-) or CH3NH2 (4 e-) products is proposed. From this carbene intermediate, pathways to the observed CH4 and NH3 products (distinct from CH3NH2 formation) are considered to compare and contrast the (likely) mechanism/s of CN- and N2 reduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian
M. Johansen
- Division of Chemistry and
Chemical Engineering, California Institute
of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Jonas C. Peters
- Division of Chemistry and
Chemical Engineering, California Institute
of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
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3
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Pellows LM, Willis MA, Ruzicka JL, Jagilinki BP, Mulder DW, Yang ZY, Seefeldt LC, King PW, Dukovic G, Peters JW. High Affinity Electrostatic Interactions Support the Formation of CdS Quantum Dot:Nitrogenase MoFe Protein Complexes. NANO LETTERS 2023; 23:10466-10472. [PMID: 37930772 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.3c03205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
Nitrogenase MoFe protein can be coupled with CdS nanocrystals (NCs) to enable photocatalytic N2 reduction. The nature of interactions that support complex formation is of paramount importance in intermolecular electron transfer that supports catalysis. In this work we have employed microscale thermophoresis to examine binding interactions between 3-mercaptopropionate capped CdS quantum dots (QDs) and MoFe protein over a range of QD diameters (3.4-4.3 nm). The results indicate that the interactions are largely electrostatic, with the strength of interactions similar to that observed for the physiological electron donor. In addition, the strength of interactions is sensitive to the QD diameter, and the binding interactions are significantly stronger for QDs with smaller diameters. The ability to quantitatively assess NC protein interactions in biohybrid systems supports strategies for understanding properties and reaction parameters that are important for obtaining optimal rates of catalysis in biohybrid systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren M Pellows
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Mark A Willis
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99163, United States
| | - Jesse L Ruzicka
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Bhanu P Jagilinki
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
| | - David W Mulder
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Zhi-Yong Yang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, United States
| | - Lance C Seefeldt
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, United States
| | - Paul W King
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Gordana Dukovic
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
- Materials Science and Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80303, United States
- Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute (RASEI), University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80303, United States
| | - John W Peters
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99163, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
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4
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Cadoux C, Ratcliff D, Maslać N, Gu W, Tsakoumagkos I, Hoogendoorn S, Wagner T, Milton RD. Nitrogen Fixation and Hydrogen Evolution by Sterically Encumbered Mo-Nitrogenase. JACS AU 2023; 3:1521-1533. [PMID: 37234119 PMCID: PMC10207099 DOI: 10.1021/jacsau.3c00165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The substrate-reducing proteins of all nitrogenases (MoFe, VFe, and FeFe) are organized as α2ß2(γ2) multimers with two functional halves. While their dimeric organization could afford improved structural stability of nitrogenases in vivo, previous research has proposed both negative and positive cooperativity contributions with respect to enzymatic activity. Here, a 1.4 kDa peptide was covalently introduced in the proximity of the P cluster, corresponding to the Fe protein docking position. The Strep-tag carried by the added peptide simultaneously sterically inhibits electron delivery to the MoFe protein and allows the isolation of partially inhibited MoFe proteins (where the half-inhibited MoFe protein was targeted). We confirm that the partially functional MoFe protein retains its ability to reduce N2 to NH3, with no significant difference in selectivity over obligatory/parasitic H2 formation. Our experiment concludes that wild-type nitrogenase exhibits negative cooperativity during the steady state regarding H2 and NH3 formation (under Ar or N2), with one-half of the MoFe protein inhibiting turnover in the second half. This emphasizes the presence and importance of long-range (>95 Å) protein-protein communication in biological N2 fixation in Azotobacter vinelandii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cécile Cadoux
- Department
of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Geneva, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
- National
Centre of Competence in Research (NCCR) Catalysis, University of Geneva, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Ratcliff
- Department
of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Geneva, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
- National
Centre of Competence in Research (NCCR) Catalysis, University of Geneva, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | - Nevena Maslać
- Max
Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology, Celsiusstraße 1, 28359 Bremen, Germany
| | - Wenyu Gu
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Ioannis Tsakoumagkos
- Department
of Organic Chemistry, National Center of Competence in Research (NCCR)
Chemical Biology, University of Geneva, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | - Sascha Hoogendoorn
- Department
of Organic Chemistry, National Center of Competence in Research (NCCR)
Chemical Biology, University of Geneva, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | - Tristan Wagner
- Max
Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology, Celsiusstraße 1, 28359 Bremen, Germany
| | - Ross D. Milton
- Department
of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Geneva, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
- National
Centre of Competence in Research (NCCR) Catalysis, University of Geneva, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
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5
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Threatt SD, Rees DC. Biological nitrogen fixation in theory, practice, and reality: a perspective on the molybdenum nitrogenase system. FEBS Lett 2023; 597:45-58. [PMID: 36344435 PMCID: PMC10100503 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.14534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Revised: 10/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Nitrogenase is the sole enzyme responsible for the ATP-dependent conversion of atmospheric dinitrogen into the bioavailable form of ammonia (NH3 ), making this protein essential for the maintenance of the nitrogen cycle and thus life itself. Despite the widespread use of the Haber-Bosch process to industrially produce NH3 , biological nitrogen fixation still accounts for half of the bioavailable nitrogen on Earth. An important feature of nitrogenase is that it operates under physiological conditions, where the equilibrium strongly favours ammonia production. This biological, multielectron reduction is a complex catalytic reaction that has perplexed scientists for decades. In this review, we explore the current understanding of the molybdenum nitrogenase system based on experimental and computational research, as well as the limitations of the crystallographic, spectroscopic, and computational techniques employed. Finally, essential outstanding questions regarding the nitrogenase system will be highlighted alongside suggestions for future experimental and computational work to elucidate this essential yet elusive process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie D Threatt
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Douglas C Rees
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
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6
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Meirovich MM, Bachar O, Nandi R, Amdursky N, Yehezkeli O. Tailoring Quantum Dot Sizes for Optimal Photoinduced Catalytic Activation of Nitrogenase. CHEMSUSCHEM 2021; 14:5410-5416. [PMID: 34612599 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202101676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2021] [Revised: 09/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Many efforts have been directed towards elucidating the nitrogenase structure, its biocatalytic activity, and methods to artificially activate it by external stimuli. Here, we investigated how semiconductor nanoparticles (NPs) with sizes ranging between 2.3-3.5 nm form nano-biohybrids with the nitrogenase enzyme and enable its photoinduced biocatalytic activity. We examined two homogenously synthesized quantum dots (QDs), CdS, CdSe, and two nitrogenase variants, the wild-type and a cysteine-mutated. We show that the cysteine-mutated variant does not enhance the hydrogen generation amounts, as compared with the wild type. Nevertheless, we show that the 2.3 nm-sized CdSe NPs facilitate an eightfold increase compared with larger CdSe NPs. The obtained results were investigated using electrochemical techniques, transmission electron microscopy, and further confirmed by time-resolved spectroscopic measurements, which allow us to determine the electron tranfer rate constant (kET ) of the different configurations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matan M Meirovich
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, 3200003, Haifa, Israel
| | - Oren Bachar
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, 3200003, Haifa, Israel
| | - Ramesh Nandi
- Schulich Faculty of Chemistry, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, 3200003, Haifa, Israel
| | - Nadav Amdursky
- Schulich Faculty of Chemistry, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, 3200003, Haifa, Israel
| | - Omer Yehezkeli
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, 3200003, Haifa, Israel
- Russell Berrie Nanotechnology Institute, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, 3200003, Haifa, Israel
- The Nancy and Stephen Grand Technion Energy Program, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, 3200003, Haifa, Israel
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7
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Yang N, Tian Y, Zhang M, Peng X, Li F, Li J, Li Y, Fan B, Wang F, Song H. Photocatalyst-enzyme hybrid systems for light-driven biotransformation. Biotechnol Adv 2021; 54:107808. [PMID: 34324993 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2021.107808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Revised: 06/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Enzymes catalyse target reactions under mild conditions with high efficiency, as well as excellent regional-, stereo-, and enantiomeric selectivity. Photocatalysis utilises sustainable and environment-friendly light power to realise efficient chemical conversion. By combining the interdisciplinary advantages of photo- and enzymatic catalysis, the photocatalyst-enzyme hybrid systems have proceeded various light-driven biotransformation with high efficiency under environmentally benign conditions, thus, attracting unparalleled focus during the last decades. It has also been regarded as a promising pathway towards green chemistry utilising ubiquitous solar energy. This systematic review gives insight into this research field by classifying the existing photocatalyst-enzyme hybrid systems into three sections based on different hybridizing modes between photo- and enzymatic catalysis. Furthermore, existing challenges and proposed strategies are discussed within this context. The first system summarised is the cofactor-mediated hybrid system, in which natural/artificial cofactors act as reducing equivalents that connect photocatalysts with enzymes for light-driven enzymatic biotransformation. Second, the direct contact-based photocatalyst-enzyme hybrid systems are described, including two different kinds of electron exchange sites on the enzyme molecules. Third, some cases where photocatalysts and enzymes are integrated into a reaction cascade with specific intermediates will be discussed in the following chapter. Finally, we provide perspective concerning the future of this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Yang
- Frontier Science Centre for Synthetic Biology, Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (MOE), Collaborative Innovation Centre of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), and School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300350, PR China
| | - Yao Tian
- Frontier Science Centre for Synthetic Biology, Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (MOE), Collaborative Innovation Centre of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), and School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300350, PR China
| | - Mai Zhang
- Frontier Science Centre for Synthetic Biology, Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (MOE), Collaborative Innovation Centre of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), and School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300350, PR China
| | - Xiting Peng
- Frontier Science Centre for Synthetic Biology, Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (MOE), Collaborative Innovation Centre of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), and School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300350, PR China
| | - Feng Li
- Frontier Science Centre for Synthetic Biology, Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (MOE), Collaborative Innovation Centre of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), and School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300350, PR China
| | - Jianxun Li
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100093, PR China
| | - Yi Li
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100093, PR China
| | - Bei Fan
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100093, PR China
| | - Fengzhong Wang
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100093, PR China.
| | - Hao Song
- Frontier Science Centre for Synthetic Biology, Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (MOE), Collaborative Innovation Centre of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), and School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300350, PR China.
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8
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Ruth JC, Spormann AM. Enzyme Electrochemistry for Industrial Energy Applications—A Perspective on Future Areas of Focus. ACS Catal 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.1c00708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John C. Ruth
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Alfred M. Spormann
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
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9
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Rapson TD, Gregg CM, Allen RS, Ju H, Doherty CM, Mulet X, Giddey S, Wood CC. Insights into Nitrogenase Bioelectrocatalysis for Green Ammonia Production. CHEMSUSCHEM 2020; 13:4856-4865. [PMID: 32696610 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202001433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
There is a growing interest in using ammonia as a liquid carrier of hydrogen for energy applications. Currently, ammonia is produced industrially by the Haber-Bosch process, which requires high temperature and high pressure. In contrast, bacteria have naturally evolved an enzyme known as nitrogenase, that is capable of producing ammonia and hydrogen at ambient temperature and pressure. Therefore, nitrogenases are attractive as a potentially more efficient means to produce ammonia via harnessing the unique properties of this enzyme. In recent years, exciting progress has been made in bioelectrocatalysis using nitrogenases to produce ammonia. Here, the prospects for developing biological ammonia production are outlined, key advances in bioelectrocatalysis by nitrogenases are highlighted, and possible solutions to the obstacles faced in realising this goal are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trevor D Rapson
- CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Black Mountain, ACT, 2601, Australia
| | | | - Robert S Allen
- CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Black Mountain, ACT, 2601, Australia
| | - HyungKuk Ju
- CSIRO Energy, Private Bag 10, Clayton South, 3169, Victoria, Australia
| | - Cara M Doherty
- CSIRO Manufacturing, Private Bag 10, Clayton South, 3169, Victoria, Australia
| | - Xavier Mulet
- CSIRO Manufacturing, Private Bag 10, Clayton South, 3169, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sarbjit Giddey
- CSIRO Energy, Private Bag 10, Clayton South, 3169, Victoria, Australia
| | - Craig C Wood
- CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Black Mountain, ACT, 2601, Australia
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10
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Brown KA, Ruzicka J, Kallas H, Chica B, Mulder DW, Peters JW, Seefeldt LC, Dukovic G, King PW. Excitation-Rate Determines Product Stoichiometry in Photochemical Ammonia Production by CdS Quantum Dot-Nitrogenase MoFe Protein Complexes. ACS Catal 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.0c02933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Katherine A. Brown
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Jesse Ruzicka
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Hayden Kallas
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, United States
| | - Bryant Chica
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - David W. Mulder
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - John W. Peters
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99163, United States
| | - Lance C. Seefeldt
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, United States
| | - Gordana Dukovic
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Paul W. King
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
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11
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Abstract
The biological process of photosynthesis was critical in catalyzing the oxygenation of Earth’s atmosphere 2.5 billion years ago, changing the course of development of life on Earth. Recently, the fields of applied and synthetic photosynthesis have utilized the light-driven protein–pigment supercomplexes central to photosynthesis for the photocatalytic production of fuel and other various valuable products. The reaction center Photosystem I is of particular interest in applied photosynthesis due to its high stability post-purification, non-geopolitical limitation, and its ability to generate the greatest reducing power found in nature. These remarkable properties have been harnessed for the photocatalytic production of a number of valuable products in the applied photosynthesis research field. These primarily include photocurrents and molecular hydrogen as fuels. The use of artificial reaction centers to generate substrates and reducing equivalents to drive non-photoactive enzymes for valuable product generation has been a long-standing area of interest in the synthetic photosynthesis research field. In this review, we cover advances in these areas and further speculate synthetic and applied photosynthesis as photocatalysts for the generation of valuable products.
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12
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Chica B, Ruzicka J, Kallas H, Mulder DW, Brown KA, Peters JW, Seefeldt LC, Dukovic G, King PW. Defining Intermediates of Nitrogenase MoFe Protein during N 2 Reduction under Photochemical Electron Delivery from CdS Quantum Dots. J Am Chem Soc 2020; 142:14324-14330. [PMID: 32787260 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.0c06343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Coupling the nitrogenase MoFe protein to light-harvesting semiconductor nanomaterials replaces the natural electron transfer complex of Fe protein and ATP and provides low-potential photoexcited electrons for photocatalytic N2 reduction. A central question is how direct photochemical electron delivery from nanocrystals to MoFe protein is able to support the multielectron ammonia production reaction. In this study, low photon flux conditions were used to identify the initial reaction intermediates of CdS quantum dot (QD):MoFe protein nitrogenase complexes under photochemical activation using EPR. Illumination of CdS QD:MoFe protein complexes led to redox changes in the MoFe protein active site FeMo-co observed as the gradual decline in the E0 resting state intensity that was accompanied by an increase in the intensity of a new "geff = 4.5" EPR signal. The magnetic properties of the geff = 4.5 signal support assignment as a reduced S = 3/2 state, and reaction modeling was used to define it as a two-electron-reduced "E2" intermediate. Use of a MoFe protein variant, β-188Cys, which poises the P cluster in the oxidized P+ state, demonstrated that the P cluster can function as a site of photoexcited electron delivery from CdS to MoFe protein. Overall, the results establish the initial steps for how photoexcited CdS delivers electrons into the MoFe protein during reduction of N2 to ammonia and the role of electron flux in the photochemical reaction cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryant Chica
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Jesse Ruzicka
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado-Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Hayden Kallas
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, United States
| | - David W Mulder
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Katherine A Brown
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - John W Peters
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99163, United States
| | - Lance C Seefeldt
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, United States
| | - Gordana Dukovic
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colorado-Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Paul W King
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
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13
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Edwards EH, Bren KL. Light-driven catalysis with engineered enzymes and biomimetic systems. Biotechnol Appl Biochem 2020; 67:463-483. [PMID: 32588914 DOI: 10.1002/bab.1976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Efforts to drive catalytic reactions with light, inspired by natural processes like photosynthesis, have a long history and have seen significant recent growth. Successfully engineering systems using biomolecular and bioinspired catalysts to carry out light-driven chemical reactions capitalizes on advantages offered from the fields of biocatalysis and photocatalysis. In particular, driving reactions under mild conditions and in water, in which enzymes are operative, using sunlight as a renewable energy source yield environmentally friendly systems. Furthermore, using enzymes and bioinspired systems can take advantage of the high efficiency and specificity of biocatalysts. There are many challenges to overcome to fully capitalize on the potential of light-driven biocatalysis. In this mini-review, we discuss examples of enzymes and engineered biomolecular catalysts that are activated via electron transfer from a photosensitizer in a photocatalytic system. We place an emphasis on selected forefront chemical reactions of high interest, including CH oxidation, proton reduction, water oxidation, CO2 reduction, and N2 reduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily H Edwards
- Department of Chemistry, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Kara L Bren
- Department of Chemistry, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
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14
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Abstract
Nitrogenase is the only enzyme capable of reducing N2 to NH3. This challenging reaction requires the coordinated transfer of multiple electrons from the reductase, Fe-protein, to the catalytic component, MoFe-protein, in an ATP-dependent fashion. In the last two decades, there have been significant advances in our understanding of how nitrogenase orchestrates electron transfer (ET) from the Fe-protein to the catalytic site of MoFe-protein and how energy from ATP hydrolysis transduces the ET processes. In this review, we summarize these advances, with focus on the structural and thermodynamic redox properties of nitrogenase component proteins and their complexes, as well as on new insights regarding the mechanism of ET reactions during catalysis and how they are coupled to ATP hydrolysis. We also discuss recently developed chemical, photochemical, and electrochemical methods for uncoupling substrate reduction from ATP hydrolysis, which may provide new avenues for studying the catalytic mechanism of nitrogenase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah L Rutledge
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0340, United States
| | - F Akif Tezcan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0340, United States
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15
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Van Stappen C, Decamps L, Cutsail GE, Bjornsson R, Henthorn JT, Birrell JA, DeBeer S. The Spectroscopy of Nitrogenases. Chem Rev 2020; 120:5005-5081. [PMID: 32237739 PMCID: PMC7318057 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Nitrogenases are responsible for biological nitrogen fixation, a crucial step in the biogeochemical nitrogen cycle. These enzymes utilize a two-component protein system and a series of iron-sulfur clusters to perform this reaction, culminating at the FeMco active site (M = Mo, V, Fe), which is capable of binding and reducing N2 to 2NH3. In this review, we summarize how different spectroscopic approaches have shed light on various aspects of these enzymes, including their structure, mechanism, alternative reactivity, and maturation. Synthetic model chemistry and theory have also played significant roles in developing our present understanding of these systems and are discussed in the context of their contributions to interpreting the nature of nitrogenases. Despite years of significant progress, there is still much to be learned from these enzymes through spectroscopic means, and we highlight where further spectroscopic investigations are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Casey Van Stappen
- Max Planck Institute for
Chemical Energy Conversion, Stiftstrasse 34-36, 45470 Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany
| | - Laure Decamps
- Max Planck Institute for
Chemical Energy Conversion, Stiftstrasse 34-36, 45470 Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany
| | - George E. Cutsail
- Max Planck Institute for
Chemical Energy Conversion, Stiftstrasse 34-36, 45470 Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany
| | - Ragnar Bjornsson
- Max Planck Institute for
Chemical Energy Conversion, Stiftstrasse 34-36, 45470 Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany
| | - Justin T. Henthorn
- Max Planck Institute for
Chemical Energy Conversion, Stiftstrasse 34-36, 45470 Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany
| | - James A. Birrell
- Max Planck Institute for
Chemical Energy Conversion, Stiftstrasse 34-36, 45470 Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany
| | - Serena DeBeer
- Max Planck Institute for
Chemical Energy Conversion, Stiftstrasse 34-36, 45470 Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany
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16
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Einsle
- Institute for Biochemistry, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Douglas C. Rees
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena California 91125, United States
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17
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Tanifuji K, Ohki Y. Metal–Sulfur Compounds in N2 Reduction and Nitrogenase-Related Chemistry. Chem Rev 2020; 120:5194-5251. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kazuki Tanifuji
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-3900, United States
| | - Yasuhiro Ohki
- Department of Chemsitry, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8602, Japan
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18
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Abstract
As the only enzyme currently known to reduce dinitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3), nitrogenase is of significant interest for bio-inspired catalyst design and for new biotechnologies aiming to produce NH3 from N2. In order to reduce N2, nitrogenase must also hydrolyze at least 16 equivalents of adenosine triphosphate (MgATP), representing the consumption of a significant quantity of energy available to biological systems. Here, we review natural and engineered electron transfer pathways to nitrogenase, including strategies to redirect or redistribute electron flow in vivo towards NH3 production. Further, we also review strategies to artificially reduce nitrogenase in vitro, where MgATP hydrolysis is necessary for turnover, in addition to strategies that are capable of bypassing the requirement of MgATP hydrolysis to achieve MgATP-independent N2 reduction.
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19
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Zheng D, Zhang Y, Liu X, Wang J. Coupling natural systems with synthetic chemistry for light-driven enzymatic biocatalysis. PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESEARCH 2020; 143:221-231. [PMID: 31317382 DOI: 10.1007/s11120-019-00660-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Accepted: 07/06/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Visible light-driven redox reactions have been widely adopted for the production of chemicals to combat energy shortage and global warming. Key elements of such a reaction system include a photosensitizer, a catalyst, and an electron source. In this review, we introduce the small molecules and nanoparticles that are widely used as photosensitizers, as well as the development of a photosensitizer protein that is based on the expansion of genetic code, with a fluorescent protein that is used as a scaffold. Visible light-driven enzymes using proteins as photosensitizers or as catalysts such as carbon monoxide dehydrogenase (CODH), formic acid dehydrogenase (FDH), hydrogenase, nitrogenase, cytochrome P450 BM3, and alkane synthase are then described. CODH can be coupled with photosensitizing nanoparticles to reduce CO2 to CO, and hydrogenase can produce H2 using high-energy electrons produced from dye-sensitized nanoparticles. When water-soluble zinc porphyrin is coupled with FDH, visible light drives CO2 to produce formic acid. Nitrogenase can reduce N2 to NH3 using CdS nanoparticle as photosensitizer. Cytochrome P450 BM3 can be enhanced by a visible light-driven redox system and thus by hydroxylate lauric acid or fatty acids. CvFAP, an alkane synthase, can decarboxylate palmitic acid to pentadecane under blue light excitation. Moreover, we describe a genetically encoded photosensitive protein, which mimics the function of natural photosynthesis and catalyzes the conversion of CO2 to CO when covalently attached with a Ni-terpyridine complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dandan Zheng
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin, 300130, China
| | - Ying Zhang
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin, 300130, China
| | - Xiaohong Liu
- Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Jiangyun Wang
- Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
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20
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Hickey DP, Cai R, Yang ZY, Grunau K, Einsle O, Seefeldt LC, Minteer SD. Establishing a Thermodynamic Landscape for the Active Site of Mo-Dependent Nitrogenase. J Am Chem Soc 2019; 141:17150-17157. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.9b06546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- David P. Hickey
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
| | - Rong Cai
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
| | - Zhi-Yong Yang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, United States
| | - Katharina Grunau
- Institut für Biochemie and BIOSS Centre for Biological Signaling Studies, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Oliver Einsle
- Institut für Biochemie and BIOSS Centre for Biological Signaling Studies, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Lance C. Seefeldt
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, United States
| | - Shelley D. Minteer
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
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21
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Van Stappen C, Davydov R, Yang ZY, Fan R, Guo Y, Bill E, Seefeldt LC, Hoffman BM, DeBeer S. Spectroscopic Description of the E 1 State of Mo Nitrogenase Based on Mo and Fe X-ray Absorption and Mössbauer Studies. Inorg Chem 2019; 58:12365-12376. [PMID: 31441651 PMCID: PMC6751781 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.9b01951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Mo nitrogenase (N2ase) utilizes a two-component protein system, the catalytic MoFe and its electron-transfer partner FeP, to reduce atmospheric dinitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3). The FeMo cofactor contained in the MoFe protein serves as the catalytic center for this reaction and has long inspired model chemistry oriented toward activating N2. This field of chemistry has relied heavily on the detailed characterization of how Mo N2ase accomplishes this feat. Understanding the reaction mechanism of Mo N2ase itself has presented one of the most challenging problems in bioinorganic chemistry because of the ephemeral nature of its catalytic intermediates, which are difficult, if not impossible, to singly isolate. This is further exacerbated by the near necessity of FeP to reduce native MoFe, rendering most traditional means of selective reduction inept. We have now investigated the first fundamental intermediate of the MoFe catalytic cycle, E1, as prepared both by low-flux turnover and radiolytic cryoreduction, using a combination of Mo Kα high-energy-resolution fluorescence detection and Fe K-edge partial-fluorescence-yield X-ray absorption spectroscopy techniques. The results demonstrate that the formation of this state is the result of an Fe-centered reduction and that Mo remains redox-innocent. Furthermore, using Fe X-ray absorption and 57Fe Mössbauer spectroscopies, we correlate a previously reported unique species formed under cryoreducing conditions to the natively formed E1 state through annealing, demonstrating the viability of cryoreduction in studying the catalytic intermediates of MoFe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Casey Van Stappen
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion , Stiftstrasse 34-36 , 45470 Mülheim an der Ruhr , Germany
| | - Roman Davydov
- Department of Chemistry , Northwestern University , Evanston , Illinois 60208 , United States
| | - Zhi-Yong Yang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , Utah State University , Logan , Utah 84322 , United States
| | - Ruixi Fan
- Department of Chemistry , Carnegie Mellon University , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania 15213 , United States
| | - Yisong Guo
- Department of Chemistry , Carnegie Mellon University , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania 15213 , United States
| | - Eckhard Bill
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion , Stiftstrasse 34-36 , 45470 Mülheim an der Ruhr , Germany
| | - Lance C Seefeldt
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , Utah State University , Logan , Utah 84322 , United States
| | - Brian M Hoffman
- Department of Chemistry , Northwestern University , Evanston , Illinois 60208 , United States
| | - Serena DeBeer
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion , Stiftstrasse 34-36 , 45470 Mülheim an der Ruhr , Germany
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22
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Rutledge HL, Rittle J, Williamson LM, Xu WA, Gagnon DM, Tezcan FA. Redox-Dependent Metastability of the Nitrogenase P-Cluster. J Am Chem Soc 2019; 141:10091-10098. [PMID: 31146522 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.9b04555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Molybdenum nitrogenase catalyzes the reduction of dinitrogen into ammonia, which requires the coordinated transfer of eight electrons to the active site cofactor (FeMoco) through the intermediacy of an [8Fe-7S] cluster (P-cluster), both housed in the molybdenum-iron protein (MoFeP). Previous studies on MoFeP from two different organisms, Azotobacter vinelandii ( Av) and Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus ( Gd), have established that the P-cluster is conformationally flexible and can undergo substantial structural changes upon two-electron oxidation to the POX state, whereby a backbone amidate and an oxygenic residue (Ser or Tyr) ligate to two of the cluster's Fe centers. This redox-dependent change in coordination has been implicated in the conformationally gated electron transfer in nitrogenase. Here, we have investigated the role of the oxygenic ligand in Av MoFeP, which natively contains a Ser ligand (βSer188) to the P-cluster. Three variants were generated in which (1) the oxygenic ligand was eliminated (βSer188Ala), (2) the P-cluster environment was converted to the one in Gd MoFeP (βPhe99Tyr/βSer188Ala), and (3) two oxygenic ligands were simultaneously included (βPhe99Tyr). Our studies have revealed that the P-cluster can become compositionally labile upon oxidation and reversibly lose one or two Fe centers in the absence of the oxygenic ligand, while still retaining wild-type-like dinitrogen reduction activity. Our findings also suggest that Av and Gd MoFePs evolved with specific preferences for Ser and Tyr ligands, respectively, and that the structural control of these ligands must extend beyond the primary and secondary coordination spheres of the P-cluster. The P-cluster adds to the increasing number of examples of inherently labile Fe-S clusters whose compositional instability may be an obligatory feature to enable redox-linked conformational changes to facilitate multielectron redox reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah L Rutledge
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of California, San Diego , 9500 Gilman Drive , La Jolla , California 92093-0356 , United States
| | - Jonathan Rittle
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of California, San Diego , 9500 Gilman Drive , La Jolla , California 92093-0356 , United States
| | - Laura M Williamson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of California, San Diego , 9500 Gilman Drive , La Jolla , California 92093-0356 , United States
| | - Wanqing A Xu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of California, San Diego , 9500 Gilman Drive , La Jolla , California 92093-0356 , United States
| | - Derek M Gagnon
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of California, San Diego , 9500 Gilman Drive , La Jolla , California 92093-0356 , United States
| | - F Akif Tezcan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of California, San Diego , 9500 Gilman Drive , La Jolla , California 92093-0356 , United States
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23
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Lee SH, Choi DS, Kuk SK, Park CB. Photobiokatalyse: Aktivierung von Redoxenzymen durch direkten oder indirekten Transfer photoinduzierter Elektronen. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201710070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sahng Ha Lee
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringKorea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) 335 Science Road Daejeon 305-701 Republik Korea
| | - Da Som Choi
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringKorea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) 335 Science Road Daejeon 305-701 Republik Korea
| | - Su Keun Kuk
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringKorea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) 335 Science Road Daejeon 305-701 Republik Korea
| | - Chan Beum Park
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringKorea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) 335 Science Road Daejeon 305-701 Republik Korea
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24
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Lee SH, Choi DS, Kuk SK, Park CB. Photobiocatalysis: Activating Redox Enzymes by Direct or Indirect Transfer of Photoinduced Electrons. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018; 57:7958-7985. [PMID: 29194901 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201710070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2017] [Revised: 11/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Biocatalytic transformation has received increasing attention in the green synthesis of chemicals because of the diversity of enzymes, their high catalytic activities and specificities, and mild reaction conditions. The idea of solar energy utilization in chemical synthesis through the combination of photocatalysis and biocatalysis provides an opportunity to make the "green" process greener. Oxidoreductases catalyze redox transformation of substrates by exchanging electrons at the enzyme's active site, often with the aid of electron mediator(s) as a counterpart. Recent progress indicates that photoinduced electron transfer using organic (or inorganic) photosensitizers can activate a wide spectrum of redox enzymes to catalyze fuel-forming reactions (e.g., H2 evolution, CO2 reduction) and synthetically useful reductions (e.g., asymmetric reduction, oxygenation, hydroxylation, epoxidation, Baeyer-Villiger oxidation). This Review provides an overview of recent advances in light-driven activation of redox enzymes through direct or indirect transfer of photoinduced electrons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahng Ha Lee
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), 335 Science Road, Daejeon, 305-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Da Som Choi
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), 335 Science Road, Daejeon, 305-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Su Keun Kuk
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), 335 Science Road, Daejeon, 305-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Chan Beum Park
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), 335 Science Road, Daejeon, 305-701, Republic of Korea
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25
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Hickey DP, Lim K, Cai R, Patterson AR, Yuan M, Sahin S, Abdellaoui S, Minteer SD. Pyrene hydrogel for promoting direct bioelectrochemistry: ATP-independent electroenzymatic reduction of N 2. Chem Sci 2018; 9:5172-5177. [PMID: 29997870 PMCID: PMC6000982 DOI: 10.1039/c8sc01638k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2018] [Accepted: 05/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
We demonstrate a novel hydrogel material to facilitate direct bioelectrochemistry of a wide range of redox proteins and enable ATP-independent electroenzymatic reduction of N2 by nitrogenase.
Enzymatic bioelectrocatalysis often requires an artificial redox mediator to observe significant electron transfer rates. The use of such mediators can add a substantial overpotential and obfuscate the protein's native kinetics, which limits the voltage of a biofuel cell and alters the analytical performance of biosensors. Herein, we describe a material for facilitating direct electrochemical communication with redox proteins based on a novel pyrene-modified linear poly(ethyleneimine). This method was applied for promoting direct bioelectrocatalytic reduction of O2 by laccase and, by immobilizing the catalytic subunit of nitrogenase (MoFe protein), to demonstrate the ATP-independent direct electroenzymatic reduction of N2 to NH3.
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Affiliation(s)
- David P Hickey
- Department of Chemistry , University of Utah , 315 S 1400 E Room 2020 , Salt Lake City , Utah 84112 , USA .
| | - Koun Lim
- Department of Chemistry , University of Utah , 315 S 1400 E Room 2020 , Salt Lake City , Utah 84112 , USA .
| | - Rong Cai
- Department of Chemistry , University of Utah , 315 S 1400 E Room 2020 , Salt Lake City , Utah 84112 , USA .
| | - Ashlea R Patterson
- Department of Chemistry , University of Utah , 315 S 1400 E Room 2020 , Salt Lake City , Utah 84112 , USA .
| | - Mengwei Yuan
- Department of Chemistry , University of Utah , 315 S 1400 E Room 2020 , Salt Lake City , Utah 84112 , USA .
| | - Selmihan Sahin
- Department of Chemistry , University of Utah , 315 S 1400 E Room 2020 , Salt Lake City , Utah 84112 , USA . .,Department of Chemistry , Faculty of Arts and Sciences , Suleyman Demirel University , Cunur , Isparta 32260 , Turkey
| | - Sofiene Abdellaoui
- Department of Chemistry , University of Utah , 315 S 1400 E Room 2020 , Salt Lake City , Utah 84112 , USA .
| | - Shelley D Minteer
- Department of Chemistry , University of Utah , 315 S 1400 E Room 2020 , Salt Lake City , Utah 84112 , USA .
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26
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Conformationally Gated Electron Transfer in Nitrogenase. Isolation, Purification, and Characterization of Nitrogenase From Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus. Methods Enzymol 2017. [PMID: 29746246 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2017.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/04/2023]
Abstract
Nitrogenase is a complex, bacterial enzyme that catalyzes the ATP-dependent reduction of dinitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3). In its most prevalent form, it consists of two proteins, the catalytic molybdenum-iron protein (MoFeP) and its specific reductase, the iron protein (FeP). A defining feature of nitrogenase is that electron and proton transfer processes linked to substrate reduction are synchronized by conformational changes driven by ATP-dependent FeP-MoFeP interactions. Yet, despite extensive crystallographic, spectroscopic, and biochemical information on nitrogenase, the structural basis of the ATP-dependent synchronization mechanism is not understood in detail. In this chapter, we summarize some of our efforts toward obtaining such an understanding. Experimental investigations of the structure-function relationships in nitrogenase are challenged by the fact that it cannot be readily expressed heterologously in nondiazotrophic bacteria, and the purification protocols for nitrogenase are only known for a small number of diazotrophic organisms. Here, we present methods for purifying and characterizing nitrogenase from a new model organism, Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus. We also describe procedures for observing redox-dependent conformational changes in G. diazotrophicus nitrogenase by X-ray crystallography and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy, which have provided new insights into the redox-dependent conformational gating processes in nitrogenase.
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27
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Kato M, Lam Q, Bhandarkar M, Banh T, Heredia J, U A, Cheruzel L. Selective C–H bond functionalization with light-driven P450 biocatalysts. CR CHIM 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.crci.2015.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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28
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Paengnakorn P, Ash PA, Shaw S, Danyal K, Chen T, Dean DR, Seefeldt LC, Vincent KA. Infrared spectroscopy of the nitrogenase MoFe protein under electrochemical control: potential-triggered CO binding. Chem Sci 2017; 8:1500-1505. [PMID: 28616146 PMCID: PMC5460594 DOI: 10.1039/c6sc02860h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2016] [Accepted: 10/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
We demonstrate electrochemical control of the nitrogenase MoFe protein, in the absence of Fe protein or ATP, using europium(iii/ii) polyaminocarboxylate complexes as electron transfer mediators. This allows the potential dependence of proton reduction and inhibitor (CO) binding to the active site FeMo-cofactor to be established. Reduction of protons to H2 is catalyzed by the wild type MoFe protein and β-98Tyr→His and β-99Phe→His variants of the MoFe protein at potentials more negative than -800 mV (vs. SHE), with greater electrocatalytic proton reduction rates observed for the variants compared to the wild type protein. Electrocatalytic proton reduction is strongly attenuated by carbon monoxide (CO), and the potential-dependence of CO binding to the FeMo-cofactor is determined by in situ infrared (IR) spectroelectrochemistry. The vibrational wavenumbers for CO coordinated to the FeMo-cofactor are consistent with earlier IR studies on the MoFe protein with Fe protein/ATP as reductant showing that electrochemically generated states of the protein are closely related to states generated with the native Fe protein as electron donor.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Paengnakorn
- Department of Chemistry , University of Oxford , Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory , South Parks Road , Oxford , OX1 3QR , UK .
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , Utah State University , Logan , Utah 84322 , USA
| | - P A Ash
- Department of Chemistry , University of Oxford , Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory , South Parks Road , Oxford , OX1 3QR , UK .
| | - S Shaw
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , Utah State University , Logan , Utah 84322 , USA
| | - K Danyal
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , Utah State University , Logan , Utah 84322 , USA
| | - T Chen
- Department of Chemistry , University of Oxford , Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory , South Parks Road , Oxford , OX1 3QR , UK .
| | - D R Dean
- Department of Biochemistry , Fralin Center , Virginia Tech University , Blacksburg , Virginia 24061 , USA
| | - L C Seefeldt
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , Utah State University , Logan , Utah 84322 , USA
| | - K A Vincent
- Department of Chemistry , University of Oxford , Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory , South Parks Road , Oxford , OX1 3QR , UK .
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29
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Sippel D, Schlesier J, Rohde M, Trncik C, Decamps L, Djurdjevic I, Spatzal T, Andrade SLA, Einsle O. Production and isolation of vanadium nitrogenase from Azotobacter vinelandii by molybdenum depletion. J Biol Inorg Chem 2016; 22:161-168. [DOI: 10.1007/s00775-016-1423-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2016] [Accepted: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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30
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Milton RD, Minteer SD. Enzymatic Bioelectrosynthetic Ammonia Production: Recent Electrochemistry of Nitrogenase, Nitrate Reductase, and Nitrite Reductase. Chempluschem 2016; 82:513-521. [PMID: 31961593 DOI: 10.1002/cplu.201600442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2016] [Revised: 10/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
As an essential component of amino acids and nucleic acids, nitrogen (N) is a key element of life. For atmospheric (dinitrogen, N2 ) and environmental (nitrate and nitrite, NO3 - and NO2 - ) sources of N to be utilized in amino acid synthesis in various forms of life, it must first be reduced to ammonia (NH3 ). The Haber-Bosch process, in which N2 is reduced to NH3 at elevated temperature and pressure, represents a major NH3 production process that has had a great impact on the agricultural crop industry. This Minireview discusses the recent electrochemistry of three key enzymes of the global biogeochemical N cycle (nitrogenase, nitrate reductase, and nitrite reductase), in view of moving toward the creation of alternative NH3 production biotechnologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ross D Milton
- Departments of Chemistry and Materials Science and Engineering, University of Utah, 315 S 1400 E, Room 2020, Salt Lake City, Utah, 84112, USA
| | - Shelley D Minteer
- Departments of Chemistry and Materials Science and Engineering, University of Utah, 315 S 1400 E, Room 2020, Salt Lake City, Utah, 84112, USA
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31
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Owens CP, Katz FEH, Carter CH, Oswald VF, Tezcan FA. Tyrosine-Coordinated P-Cluster in G. diazotrophicus Nitrogenase: Evidence for the Importance of O-Based Ligands in Conformationally Gated Electron Transfer. J Am Chem Soc 2016; 138:10124-7. [PMID: 27487256 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.6b06783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The P-cluster is a unique iron-sulfur center that likely functions as a dynamic electron (e(-)) relay site between the Fe-protein and the catalytic FeMo-cofactor in nitrogenase. The P-cluster has been shown to undergo large conformational changes upon 2-e(-) oxidation which entail the coordination of two of the Fe centers to a Ser side chain and a backbone amide N, respectively. Yet, how and if this 2-e(-) oxidized state (P(OX)) is involved in catalysis by nitrogenase is not well established. Here, we present the crystal structures of reduced and oxidized MoFe-protein (MoFeP) from Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus (Gd), which natively possesses an Ala residue in the position of the Ser ligand to the P-cluster. While reduced Gd-MoFeP is structurally identical to previously characterized counterparts around the FeMo-cofactor, oxidized Gd-MoFeP features an unusual Tyr coordination to its P-cluster along with ligation by a backbone amide nitrogen. EPR analysis of the oxidized Gd-MoFeP P-cluster confirmed that it is a 2-e(-) oxidized, integer-spin species. Importantly, we have found that the sequence positions corresponding to the Ser and Tyr ligands are almost completely covariant among Group I nitrogenases. These findings strongly support the possibility that the P(OX) state is functionally relevant in nitrogenase catalysis and that a hard, O-based anionic ligand serves to stabilize this state in a switchable fashion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cedric P Owens
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego , 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0356, United States
| | - Faith E H Katz
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego , 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0356, United States
| | - Cole H Carter
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego , 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0356, United States
| | - Victoria F Oswald
- Department of Chemistry, University of California , Irvine, 1102 Natural Science II, Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - F Akif Tezcan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego , 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0356, United States
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32
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Katz FEH, Owens CP, Tezcan FA. Electron Transfer Reactions in Biological Nitrogen Fixation. Isr J Chem 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ijch.201600020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Faith E. H. Katz
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; University of California, San Diego; 9500 Gilman Drive San Diego CA 92093 USA
| | - Cedric P. Owens
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; University of California, San Diego; 9500 Gilman Drive San Diego CA 92093 USA
| | - F. A. Tezcan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; University of California, San Diego; 9500 Gilman Drive San Diego CA 92093 USA
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33
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Shafaat OS, Winkler JR, Gray HB, Dougherty DA. Photoactivation of an Acid-Sensitive Ion Channel Associated with Vision and Pain. Chembiochem 2016; 17:1323-7. [PMID: 27123791 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201600230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
We describe the reversible photoactivation of the acid sensitive ligand-gated ion channel ASIC2a, a mammalian channel found throughout the central and peripheral nervous systems that is associated with vision and pain. We also show the activation of GLIC, an acid-sensitive prokaryotic homologue of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. Photoactivation was achieved by using visible light irradiation of a newly synthesized water-soluble merocyanine photoacid, 1, which was designed to remove adverse channel blocking effects of a related system. Activation of ASIC2a and GLIC occurs reversibly, in a benign manner, and only upon irradiation. Further studies using transient absorption spectroscopy showed that protonation of a colorimetric base occurred rapidly (ca. 100 μs) after excitation of 1. These results demonstrate that irradiation of 1 can induce rapid, local pH changes that can be used to investigate both biological and chemical proton transfer reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver S Shafaat
- Beckman Institute and Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, The California Institute of Technology, 1200 E. California Avenue, Pasadena, CA, 91125, USA
| | - Jay R Winkler
- Beckman Institute and Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, The California Institute of Technology, 1200 E. California Avenue, Pasadena, CA, 91125, USA
| | - Harry B Gray
- Beckman Institute and Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, The California Institute of Technology, 1200 E. California Avenue, Pasadena, CA, 91125, USA.
| | - Dennis A Dougherty
- Beckman Institute and Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, The California Institute of Technology, 1200 E. California Avenue, Pasadena, CA, 91125, USA.
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34
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Brown KA, Harris DF, Wilker MB, Rasmussen A, Khadka N, Hamby H, Keable S, Dukovic G, Peters JW, Seefeldt LC, King PW. Light-driven dinitrogen reduction catalyzed by a CdS:nitrogenase MoFe protein biohybrid. Science 2016; 352:448-50. [PMID: 27102481 DOI: 10.1126/science.aaf2091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 397] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2016] [Accepted: 03/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The splitting of dinitrogen (N2) and reduction to ammonia (NH3) is a kinetically complex and energetically challenging multistep reaction. In the Haber-Bosch process, N2 reduction is accomplished at high temperature and pressure, whereas N2 fixation by the enzyme nitrogenase occurs under ambient conditions using chemical energy from adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) hydrolysis. We show that cadmium sulfide (CdS) nanocrystals can be used to photosensitize the nitrogenase molybdenum-iron (MoFe) protein, where light harvesting replaces ATP hydrolysis to drive the enzymatic reduction of N2 into NH3 The turnover rate was 75 per minute, 63% of the ATP-coupled reaction rate for the nitrogenase complex under optimal conditions. Inhibitors of nitrogenase (i.e., acetylene, carbon monoxide, and dihydrogen) suppressed N2 reduction. The CdS:MoFe protein biohybrids provide a photochemical model for achieving light-driven N2 reduction to NH3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine A Brown
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401, USA
| | - Derek F Harris
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA
| | - Molly B Wilker
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - Andrew Rasmussen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA
| | - Nimesh Khadka
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA
| | - Hayden Hamby
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - Stephen Keable
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Gordana Dukovic
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - John W Peters
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Lance C Seefeldt
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA
| | - Paul W King
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401, USA.
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35
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Lee Y, Jeon IR, Abboud KA, García-Serres R, Shearer J, Murray LJ. A [3Fe–3S]3+ cluster with exclusively μ-sulfide donors. Chem Commun (Camb) 2016; 52:1174-7. [DOI: 10.1039/c5cc07813j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
A [3Fe–3(μ-S)]3+ cluster is reported in which each ferric center has a distorted trigonal pyramidal geometry, with an S = 1/2 ground state for the cluster and unusually anisotropic hyperfine coupling constants as determined by variable temperature magnetometry and Mössbauer spectroscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yousoon Lee
- Department of Chemistry
- Center for Catalysis
- University of Florida
- Gainesville
- USA
| | - Ie-Rang Jeon
- Department of Chemistry
- Northwestern University
- Evanston
- USA
| | - Khalil A. Abboud
- Department of Chemistry
- Center for Catalysis
- University of Florida
- Gainesville
- USA
| | | | - Jason Shearer
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Nevada
- Reno
- Reno
- USA
| | - Leslie J. Murray
- Department of Chemistry
- Center for Catalysis
- University of Florida
- Gainesville
- USA
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36
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Owens CP, Katz FEH, Carter CH, Luca MA, Tezcan FA. Evidence for Functionally Relevant Encounter Complexes in Nitrogenase Catalysis. J Am Chem Soc 2015; 137:12704-12. [PMID: 26360912 PMCID: PMC4809638 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.5b08310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Nitrogenase is the only enzyme that can convert atmospheric dinitrogen (N2) into biologically usable ammonia (NH3). To achieve this multielectron redox process, the nitrogenase component proteins, MoFe-protein (MoFeP) and Fe-protein (FeP), repeatedly associate and dissociate in an ATP-dependent manner, where one electron is transferred from FeP to MoFeP per association. Here, we provide experimental evidence that encounter complexes between FeP and MoFeP play a functional role in nitrogenase catalysis. The encounter complexes are stabilized by electrostatic interactions involving a positively charged patch on the β-subunit of MoFeP. Three single mutations (βAsn399Glu, βLys400Glu, and βArg401Glu) in this patch were generated in Azotobacter vinelandii MoFeP. All of the resulting variants displayed decreases in specific catalytic activity, with the βK400E mutation showing the largest effect. As simulated by the Thorneley-Lowe kinetic scheme, this single mutation lowered the rate constant for FeP-MoFeP association 5-fold. We also found that the βK400E mutation did not affect the coupling of ATP hydrolysis with electron transfer (ET) between FeP and MoFeP. These data suggest a mechanism where FeP initially forms encounter complexes on the MoFeP β-subunit surface en route to the ATP-activated, ET-competent complex over the αβ-interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cedric P. Owens
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, 92039, United States
| | - Faith E. H. Katz
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, 92039, United States
| | - Cole H. Carter
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, 92039, United States
| | - Maria A. Luca
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, 92039, United States
| | - F. Akif Tezcan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, 92039, United States
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37
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Ru(II)-diimine functionalized metalloproteins: From electron transfer studies to light-driven biocatalysis. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOENERGETICS 2015; 1857:589-597. [PMID: 26392147 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbabio.2015.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2015] [Accepted: 09/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The unique photochemical properties of Ru(II)-diimine complexes have helped initiate a series of seminal electron transfer studies in metalloenzymes. It has thus been possible to experimentally determine rate constants for long-range electron transfers. These studies have laid the foundation for the investigation of reactive intermediates in heme proteins and for the design of light-activated biocatalysts. Various metalloenzymes such as hydrogenase, carbon monoxide dehydrogenase, nitrogenase, laccase and cytochrome P450 BM3 have been functionalized with Ru(II)-diimine complexes. Upon visible light-excitation, these photosensitized metalloproteins are capable of sustaining photocatalytic activity to reduce small molecules such as protons, acetylene, hydrogen cyanide and carbon monoxide or activate molecular dioxygen to produce hydroxylated products. The Ru(II)-diimine photosensitizers are hence able to deliver multiple electrons to metalloenzymes buried active sites, circumventing the need for the natural redox partners. In this review, we will highlight the key achievements of the light-driven biocatalysts, which stem from the extensive electron transfer investigations. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Biodesign for Bioenergetics--the design and engineering of electronic transfer cofactors, proteins and protein networks, edited by Ronald L. Koder and J.L. Ross Anderson.
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38
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Hales BJ. Ethylene Glycol Quenching of Nitrogenase Catalysis: An Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Spectroscopic Study of Nitrogenase Turnover States and CO Bonding. Biochemistry 2015; 54:4208-15. [PMID: 26090555 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.5b00426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Most hydrophilic organic solvents inhibit enzymatic activity. Nitrogenase is shown to be approximately 3 times more sensitive to organic inhibition than most other soluble enzymes. Ethylene glycol (EG) is demonstrated to rapidly inhibit nitrogenase activity without uncoupling ATP hydrolysis. Our data suggest the mechanism of inhibition is EG's blocking of binding of MgATP to the nitrogenase Fe protein. EG quenching allows, for the first time, the observation of the relaxation of the intermediate reaction states at room temperature. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy is used to monitor the room-temperature decay of the nitrogenase turnover states following EG quenching of catalytic activity. The return of the intermediate states to the resting state occurs in multiple phases over 2 h. During the initial stage, nitrogenase still possesses the ability to generate CO-induced EPR signals even though catalytic activity has ceased. During the last phase of relaxation, the one-electron reduced state of the MoFe protein (E1) relaxes to the resting state (E0) in a slow first-order reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian J Hales
- Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70808, United States
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39
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40
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Danyal K, Rasmussen AJ, Keable SM, Inglet BS, Shaw S, Zadvornyy OA, Duval S, Dean DR, Raugei S, Peters JW, Seefeldt LC. Fe protein-independent substrate reduction by nitrogenase MoFe protein variants. Biochemistry 2015; 54:2456-62. [PMID: 25831270 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.5b00140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The reduction of substrates catalyzed by nitrogenase normally requires nucleotide-dependent Fe protein delivery of electrons to the MoFe protein, which contains the active site FeMo cofactor. Here, it is reported that independent substitution of three amino acids (β-98(Tyr→His), α-64(Tyr→His), and β-99(Phe→His)) located between the P cluster and FeMo cofactor within the MoFe protein endows it with the ability to reduce protons to H2, azide to ammonia, and hydrazine to ammonia without the need for Fe protein or ATP. Instead, electrons can be provided by the low-potential reductant polyaminocarboxylate-ligated Eu(II) (Em values of -1.1 to -0.84 V vs the normal hydrogen electrode). The crystal structure of the β-98(Tyr→His) variant MoFe protein was determined, revealing only small changes near the amino acid substitution that affect the solvent structure and the immediate vicinity between the P cluster and the FeMo cofactor, with no global conformational changes observed. Computational normal-mode analysis of the nitrogenase complex reveals coupling in the motions of the Fe protein and the region of the MoFe protein with these three amino acids, which suggests a possible mechanism for how Fe protein might communicate subtle changes deep within the MoFe protein that profoundly affect intramolecular electron transfer and substrate reduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karamatullah Danyal
- †Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, United States
| | - Andrew J Rasmussen
- †Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, United States
| | - Stephen M Keable
- ∥Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana 59717, United States
| | - Boyd S Inglet
- †Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, United States
| | - Sudipta Shaw
- †Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, United States
| | - Oleg A Zadvornyy
- ∥Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana 59717, United States
| | - Simon Duval
- †Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, United States
| | - Dennis R Dean
- ‡Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Tech University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, United States
| | - Simone Raugei
- §Center for Molecular Electrocatalysis, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, P.O. Box 999, K2-57, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
| | - John W Peters
- ∥Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana 59717, United States
| | - Lance C Seefeldt
- †Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, United States
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41
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Banerjee A, Yuhas BD, Margulies EA, Zhang Y, Shim Y, Wasielewski MR, Kanatzidis MG. Photochemical Nitrogen Conversion to Ammonia in Ambient Conditions with FeMoS-Chalcogels. J Am Chem Soc 2015; 137:2030-4. [DOI: 10.1021/ja512491v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 243] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Abhishek Banerjee
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Benjamin D. Yuhas
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Eric A. Margulies
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Yongbo Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Yurina Shim
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Michael R. Wasielewski
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Mercouri G. Kanatzidis
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
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42
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Tezcan FA, Kaiser JT, Howard JB, Rees DC. Structural evidence for asymmetrical nucleotide interactions in nitrogenase. J Am Chem Soc 2014; 137:146-9. [PMID: 25522159 PMCID: PMC4304452 DOI: 10.1021/ja511945e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
![]()
The
roles of ATP hydrolysis in electron-transfer (ET) reactions
of the nitrogenase catalytic cycle remain obscure. Here, we present
a new structure of a nitrogenase complex crystallized with MgADP and
MgAMPPCP, an ATP analogue. In this structure the two nucleotides are
bound asymmetrically by the Fe-protein subunits connected to the two
different MoFe-protein subunits. This binding mode suggests that ATP
hydrolysis and phosphate release may proceed by a stepwise mechanism.
Through the associated Fe-protein conformational changes, a stepwise
mechanism is anticipated to prolong the lifetime of the Fe-protein-MoFe-protein
complex and, in turn, could orchestrate the sequence of intracomplex
ET required for substrate reduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Akif Tezcan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego , La Jolla, California 92093-0356, United States
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43
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Dwaraknath S, Tran NH, Dao T, Colbert A, Mullen S, Nguyen A, Cortez A, Cheruzel L. A facile and versatile methodology for cysteine specific labeling of proteins with octahedral polypyridyl d⁶ metal complexes. J Inorg Biochem 2014; 136:154-60. [PMID: 24468675 PMCID: PMC4058400 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2013.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2013] [Revised: 12/30/2013] [Accepted: 12/31/2013] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
We have synthesized and characterized four octahedral polypyridyl d(6) metal complexes bearing the 5,6-epoxy-5,6-dihydro-[1,10]phenanthroline ligand (L1) as cysteine specific labeling reagents. The proposed synthetic pathways allow the preparation of the metal complexes containing Re(I), Ru(II), Os(II) and Ir(III) while preserving the epoxide functionality. The complexes were characterized by (1)H and (13)C NMR, mass spectrometry, UV-visible and luminescence spectroscopies as well as cyclic voltammetry. As proof of concept, a set of non-native single cysteine P450 BM3 heme domain mutants previously developed in our laboratory was used to study the labeling reaction. We demonstrate that the proposed labels can selectively react, often in high yield, with cysteine residues of the protein via the nucleophilic thiol ring opening of the epoxide moiety. In addition, under basic conditions, subsequent loss of a water molecule led to the aromatization of the phenanthroline ring on the protein-bound label compounds, as observed by mass spectrometry and luminescence measurements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudharsan Dwaraknath
- San José State University, Department of Chemistry, One Washington Square, San José, CA 95192-0101, United States
| | - Ngoc-Han Tran
- San José State University, Department of Chemistry, One Washington Square, San José, CA 95192-0101, United States
| | - Thanh Dao
- San José State University, Department of Chemistry, One Washington Square, San José, CA 95192-0101, United States
| | - Alexander Colbert
- San José State University, Department of Chemistry, One Washington Square, San José, CA 95192-0101, United States
| | - Sarah Mullen
- San José State University, Department of Chemistry, One Washington Square, San José, CA 95192-0101, United States
| | - Angelina Nguyen
- San José State University, Department of Chemistry, One Washington Square, San José, CA 95192-0101, United States
| | - Alejandro Cortez
- San José State University, Department of Chemistry, One Washington Square, San José, CA 95192-0101, United States
| | - Lionel Cheruzel
- San José State University, Department of Chemistry, One Washington Square, San José, CA 95192-0101, United States.
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44
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay R. Winkler
- Beckman Institute, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E. California Boulevard, Pasadena, CA 91125
| | - Harry B. Gray
- Beckman Institute, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E. California Boulevard, Pasadena, CA 91125
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45
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Hoffman BM, Lukoyanov D, Yang ZY, Dean DR, Seefeldt LC. Mechanism of nitrogen fixation by nitrogenase: the next stage. Chem Rev 2014; 114:4041-62. [PMID: 24467365 PMCID: PMC4012840 DOI: 10.1021/cr400641x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 963] [Impact Index Per Article: 96.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Brian M Hoffman
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University , 0300 Old Main Hill, Logan, Utah 84322, United States
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46
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Tran NH, Nguyen D, Dwaraknath S, Mahadevan S, Chavez G, Nguyen A, Dao T, Mullen S, Nguyen TA, Cheruzel LE. An efficient light-driven P450 BM3 biocatalyst. J Am Chem Soc 2013; 135:14484-7. [PMID: 24040992 DOI: 10.1021/ja409337v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
P450s are heme thiolate enzymes that catalyze the regio- and stereoselective functionalization of unactivated C-H bonds using molecular dioxygen and two electrons delivered by the reductase. We have developed hybrid P450 BM3 heme domains containing a covalently attached Ru(II) photosensitizer in order to circumvent the dependency on the reductase and perform P450 reactions upon visible light irradiation. A highly active hybrid enzyme with improved stability and a modified Ru(II) photosensitizer is able to catalyze the light-driven hydroxylation of lauric acid with total turnover numbers of 935 and initial reaction rate of 125 mol product/(mol enzyme/min).
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Affiliation(s)
- Ngoc-Han Tran
- Department of Chemistry, San José State University , One Washington Square, San José, California 95192-0101, United States
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47
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Lazarides T, Sazanovich IV, Simaan AJ, Kafentzi MC, Delor M, Mekmouche Y, Faure B, Réglier M, Weinstein JA, Coutsolelos AG, Tron T. Visible Light-Driven O2 Reduction by a Porphyrin–Laccase System. J Am Chem Soc 2013; 135:3095-103. [DOI: 10.1021/ja309969s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Theodore Lazarides
- Chemistry
Department, University of Crete, Voutes
Campus, 71003 Heraklion,
Crete, Greece
| | - Igor V. Sazanovich
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Sheffield,
Sheffield S3 7HF, United Kingdom
| | - A. Jalila Simaan
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS
UMR 7313, case 342, 13397 Marseille Cedex 20, France
| | - Maria Chrisanthi Kafentzi
- Chemistry
Department, University of Crete, Voutes
Campus, 71003 Heraklion,
Crete, Greece
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS
UMR 7313, case 342, 13397 Marseille Cedex 20, France
| | - Milan Delor
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Sheffield,
Sheffield S3 7HF, United Kingdom
| | - Yasmina Mekmouche
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS
UMR 7313, case 342, 13397 Marseille Cedex 20, France
| | - Bruno Faure
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS
UMR 7313, case 342, 13397 Marseille Cedex 20, France
| | - Marius Réglier
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS
UMR 7313, case 342, 13397 Marseille Cedex 20, France
| | - Julia A. Weinstein
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Sheffield,
Sheffield S3 7HF, United Kingdom
| | | | - Thierry Tron
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS
UMR 7313, case 342, 13397 Marseille Cedex 20, France
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48
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Murata K, Araki M, Inagaki A, Akita M. Syntheses, photophysical properties, and reactivities of novel bichromophoric Pd complexes composed of Ru(ii)–polypyridyl and naphthyl moieties. Dalton Trans 2013; 42:6989-7001. [DOI: 10.1039/c3dt50266j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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