DNA-based asymmetric catalysis: sequence-dependent rate acceleration and enantioselectivity

Efficient Silver(I)-Containing I-Motif DNA Hybrid Catalyst for Enantioselective Diels-Alder Reactions

The inherent chiral structures of DNA serve as attractive scaffolds to construct DNA hybrid catalysts for valuable enantioselective transformations. Duplex and G-quadruplex DNA-based enantioselective catalysis has made great progress, yet novel design strategies of DNA hybrid catalysts are highly demanding and atomistic analysis of active centers is still challenging. DNA i-motif structures could be finely tuned by different cytosine-cytosine base pairs, providing a new platform to design DNA catalysts. Herein, we found that a human telomeric i-motif DNA containing cytosine-silver(I)-cytosine (C-Ag+-C) base pairs interacting with Cu(II) ions (i-motif DNA(Ag+)/Cu2+) could catalyze Diels-Alder reactions with full conversions and up to 95 % enantiomeric excess. As characterized by various physicochemical techniques, the presence of Ag+ is proved to replace the protons in hemiprotonated cytosine-cytosine (C : C+) base pairs and stabilize the DNA i-motif to allow the acceptance of Cu(II) ions. The i-motif DNA(Ag+)/Cu2+ catalyst shows about 8-fold rate acceleration compared with DNA and Cu2+. Based on DNA mutation experiments, thermodynamic studies and density function theory calculations, the catalytic center of Cu(II) ion is proposed to be located in a specific loop region via binding to one nitrogen-7 atom of an unpaired adenine and two phosphate-oxygen atoms from nearby deoxythymidine monophosphate and deoxyadenosine monophosphate, respectively.

Biocatalytic Friedel-Crafts Reactions

Friedel-Crafts alkylation and acylation reactions are important methodologies in synthetic and industrial chemistry for the construction of aryl-alkyl and aryl-acyl linkages that are ubiquitous in bioactive molecules. Nature also exploits these reactions in many biosynthetic processes. Much work has been done to expand the synthetic application of these enzymes to unnatural substrates through directed evolution. The promise of such biocatalysts is their potential to supersede inefficient and toxic chemical approaches to these reactions, with mild operating conditions - the hallmark of enzymes. Complementary work has created many bio-hybrid Friedel-Crafts catalysts consisting of chemical catalysts anchored into biomolecular scaffolds, which display many of the same desirable characteristics. In this Review, we summarise these efforts, focussing on both mechanistic aspects and synthetic considerations, concluding with an overview of the frontiers of this field and routes towards more efficient and benign Friedel-Crafts reactions for the future of humankind.

New Benchmark in DNA-Based Asymmetric Catalysis: Prevalence of Modified DNA/RNA Hybrid Systems

By harnessing the chirality of the DNA double helix, chemists have been able to obtain new, reliable, selective, and environmentally friendly biohybrid catalytic systems with tailor-made functions. Nonetheless, despite all the advances made throughout the years in the field of DNA-based asymmetric catalysis, many challenges still remain to be faced, in particular when it comes to designing a "universal" catalyst with broad reactivity and unprecedented selectivity. Rational design and rounds of selection have allowed us to approach this goal. We report here the development of a DNA/RNA hybrid catalytic system featuring a covalently attached bipyridine ligand, which exhibits unmatched levels of selectivity throughout the current DNA toolbox and opens new avenues in asymmetric catalysis.

Chalcones, a Privileged Scaffold: Highly Versatile Molecules in [4+2] Cycloadditions

Chalcones are aromatic ketones found in nature as the central core of many biological compounds. They have a wide range of biological activity and are biogenetic precursors of other important molecules such as flavonoids. Their pharmacological relevance makes them a privileged scaffold, advantageous for seeking alternative therapies in medicinal chemistry. Due to their structural diversity and ease of synthesis, they are often employed as building blocks for chemical transformations. Chalcones have a carbonyl conjugated system with two electrophilic centers that are commonly used for nucleophilic additions, as described in numerous articles. They can also participate in Diels-Alder reactions, which are [4+2] cycloadditions between a diene and a dienophile. This microreview presents a chronological survey of studies on chalcones as dienes and dienophiles in Diels-Alder cycloadditions. Although these reactions occur in nature, isolation of chalcones from plants yields very small quantities. Contrarily, synthesis leads to large quantities at a low cost. Hence, novel methodologies have been developed for [4+2] cycloadditions, with chalcones serving as a 2π or 4π electron system.

A Localized Enantioselective Catalytic Site on Short DNA Sequences and Their Amphiphiles

A DNA-based artificial metalloenzyme (ArM) consisting of a copper(II) complex of 4,4'-dimethyl-2,2'-bipyridine (dmbipy-Cu) bound to double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) as short as 8 base pairs with only 2 contiguous central pairs (G for guanine and C for cytosine) catalyzes the highly enantioselective Diels-Alder reaction, Michael addition, and Friedel-Crafts alkylation in water. Molecular simulations indicate that these minimal sequences provide a single site where dmbipy-Cu is groove-bound and able to function as an enantioselective catalyst. Enantioselective preference inverts when d-DNA is replaced with l-DNA. When the DNA is conjugated to a hydrophobic tail, the obtained ArMs exhibit enantioselective performance in a methanol-water mixture superior to that of non-amphiphilic dsDNA, and dsDNA-amphiphiles with more complex G•C-rich sequences.

Dissecting the Role of the Sergeants in Supramolecular Helical Catalysts: From Chain Capping to Intercalation

Controlling the properties of supramolecular assemblies requires unveiling the specific interactions between their components. In the present work, the catalytic properties and structure of co-assemblies composed of a benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxamide (BTA) ligand coordinated to copper (the soldier) and seven enantiopure BTAs (the sergeants) have been determined. Whatever the sergeant, the enantioselectivity of the reaction is directly proportional to the optical purity of the supramolecular helices. More strikingly, the role played by the sergeant in the co-assembly process differs significantly: from almost pure intercalator (when it is incorporated in the stacks of the soldier and generates long homochiral helices) to pure chain capper (when it leads to the formation of partly helically biased and short assemblies). The former situation leads to optimal enantioselectivity for the catalytic system under study (58 % ee) while the latter situation leads to very low selectivity (8 % ee). The successful rationalization of this high and unexpected difference is crucial for the development of more efficient catalysts and more elaborate supramolecular systems.

Cofactor Binding Dynamics Influence the Catalytic Activity and Selectivity of an Artificial Metalloenzyme

We present an artificial metalloenzyme based on the transcriptional regulator LmrR that exhibits dynamics involving the positioning of its abiological metal cofactor. The position of the cofactor, in turn, was found to be related to the preferred catalytic reactivity, which is either the enantioselective Friedel-Crafts alkylation of indoles with β-substituted enones or the tandem Friedel-Crafts alkylation/enantioselective protonation of indoles with α-substituted enones. The artificial metalloenzyme could be specialized for one of these catalytic reactions introducing a single mutation in the protein. The relation between cofactor dynamics and activity and selectivity in catalysis has not been described for natural enzymes and, to date, appears to be particular for artificial metalloenzymes.

Highly Efficient Cyclic Dinucleotide Based Artificial Metalloribozymes for Enantioselective Friedel-Crafts Reactions in Water

The diverse secondary structures of nucleic acids are emerging as attractive chiral scaffolds to construct artificial metalloenzymes (ArMs) for enantioselective catalysis. DNA-based ArMs containing duplex and G-quadruplex scaffolds have been widely investigated, yet RNA-based ArMs are scarce. Here we report that a cyclic dinucleotide of c-di-AMP and Cu²⁺ ions assemble into an artificial metalloribozyme (c-di-AMP⋅Cu²⁺ ) that enables catalysis of enantioselective Friedel-Crafts reactions in aqueous media with high reactivity and excellent enantioselectivity of up to 97 % ee. The assembly of c-di-AMP⋅Cu²⁺ gives rise to a 20-fold rate acceleration compared to Cu²⁺ ions. Based on various biophysical techniques and density function theory (DFT) calculations, a fine coordination structure of c-di-AMP⋅Cu²⁺ metalloribozyme is suggested in which two c-di-AMP form a dimer scaffold and the Cu²⁺ ion is located in the center of an adenine-adenine plane through binding to two N7 nitrogen atoms and one phosphate oxygen atom.

Catalytic formation of luminescent lanthanide complexes using an entropy-driven DNA circuit

Luminescent lanthanide complexes were catalytically formed through an entropy-driven DNA circuit triggered by a target nucleic acid.

Regulating Transition-Metal Catalysis through Interference by Short RNAs

Herein we report the discovery of a Au^I -DNA hybrid catalyst that is compatible with biological media and whose reactivity can be regulated by small complementary nucleic acid sequences. The development of this catalytic system was enabled by the discovery of a novel Au^I -mediated base pair. We found that Au^I binds DNA containing C-T mismatches. In the Au^I -DNA catalyst's latent state, the Au^I ion is sequestered by the mismatch such that it is coordinatively saturated, rendering it catalytically inactive. Upon addition of an RNA or DNA strand that is complementary to the latent catalyst's oligonucleotide backbone, catalytic activity is induced, leading to a sevenfold increase in the formation of a fluorescent product, forged through a Au^I -catalyzed hydroamination reaction. Further development of this catalytic system will expand not only the chemical space available to synthetic biological systems but also allow for temporal and spatial control of transition-metal catalysis through gene transcription.

A Bis-Zn2+ -Pyridyl-Salen-Type Complex Conjugated to the ATP Aptamer: An ATPase-Mimicking Nucleoapzyme

Catalytic nucleic acids consisting of a bis-Zn²⁺ -pyridyl-salen-type ([di-Zn^II 3,5 bis(pyridinylimino) benzoic acid]) complex conjugated to the ATP aptamer act as ATPase-mimicking catalysts (nucleoapzymes). Direct linking of the Zn²⁺ complex to the 3'- or 5'-end of the aptamer (nucleoapzymes I and II) or its conjugation to the 3'- or 5'-end of the aptamer through bis-thymidine spacers (nucleoapzymes III and IV) provided a set of nucleoapzymes exhibiting variable catalytic activities. Whereas the separated bis-Zn²⁺ -pyridyl-salen-type catalyst and the ATP aptamer do not show any noticeable catalytic activity, the 3'-catalyst-modified nucleoapzyme (nucleoapzyme IV) and, specifically, the nucleoapzyme consisting of the catalyst linked to the 3'-position through the spacer (nucleoapzyme III) reveal enhanced catalytic features in relation to the analogous nucleoapzyme substituted at the 5'-position (k_cat =4.37 and 6.88 min^-1 , respectively). Evaluation of the binding properties of ATP to the different nucleoapzyme and complementary molecular dynamics simulations suggest that the distance separating the active site from the substrate linked to the aptamer binding site controls the catalytic activities of the different nucleoapzymes.

A rational quest for selectivity through precise ligand-positioning in tandem DNA-catalysed Friedel-Crafts alkylation/asymmetric protonation

Covalent anchorage of a metallic co-factor to a DNA-based architecture is merely the only way to ensure an accurate positioning of a catalytic site within the chiral micro-environment offered by the DNA double helix. Ultimately, it also allows a fine-tuning of the catalytic pocket through simple synthetic modifications of the DNA sequence. Here, we report highly selective copper(ii)-catalysed asymmetric Friedel-Crafts conjugate addition/enantioselective protonation, which is due to a careful positioning of a bipyridine ligand within a DNA framework. Most importantly, this study unveils specific structural features that account for an optimal chirality transfer from the duplex to the Friedel-Crafts adducts.

Copper nitrate: a privileged reagent for organic synthesis

Copper has been explored as an ideal candidate for replacing noble metals in organic synthesis, especially for practical large scale preparation. Recent decades have witnessed the renaissance and improvement of copper-catalyzed and copper-mediated organic reactions. Copper nitrate is a common inorganic copper salt which has been proved to be a ubiquitous reactant in organic synthesis due to its commercial availability, stability, inexpensiveness and environmentally benign nature. Copper nitrate could be used as a nitration reagent, oxidant, catalyst or promoter, and Lewis acid as well. Remarkably, great attention has been devoted to the efficient transformation of copper nitrate into functionalized or complicated compounds through various reaction types including cyclization, C-H activation, difunctionalization, nitration, rearrangement and asymmetric synthesis with chiral ligands. Further modification of copper nitrate, such as solid-supported copper nitrate or copper nitrate complexes, extends its applications in organic synthesis. The present review highlights recent advances of copper nitrate in organic synthesis, along with the mechanisms.

Fluorescence Spectroscopic Insight into the Supramolecular Interactions in DNA-Based Enantioselective Sulfoxidation

Interactions of copper(II)-bipyridine cofactors and thioanisole substrate with human telomeric G-quadruplex DNA were studied by UV/Vis absorption, circular dichroism, and fluorescence quenching titration. Three copper(II)-bipyridine complexes are equivalently anchored to the G-quadruplex scaffold at all five fluorescently labeled sites. Thioanisole interacts with the DNA architecture at both the second loop and 3' terminus in the absence or presence of copper(II)-bipyridine complexes. These nonspecificities in the weak interactions of Cu^II complexes and thioanisole with G-quadruplex might explain why DNA only affords a modest enantioselectivity in the oxidation of thioanisole. These findings provide insights toward the construction of highly enantioselective DNA-based catalysts.

Ligand libraries for high throughput screening of homogeneous catalysts

This review describes different approaches to construct ligand libraries towards high throughput screening of homogeneous metal catalysts.

Catalytic Organic Reactions in Water toward Sustainable Society

Traditional organic synthesis relies heavily on organic solvents for a multitude of tasks, including dissolving the components and facilitating chemical reactions, because many reagents and reactive species are incompatible or immiscible with water. Given that they are used in vast quantities as compared to reactants, solvents have been the focus of environmental concerns. Along with reducing the environmental impact of organic synthesis, the use of water as a reaction medium also benefits chemical processes by simplifying operations, allowing mild reaction conditions, and sometimes delivering unforeseen reactivities and selectivities. After the "watershed" in organic synthesis revealed the importance of water, the development of water-compatible catalysts has flourished, triggering a quantum leap in water-centered organic synthesis. Given that organic compounds are typically practically insoluble in water, simple extractive workup can readily separate a water-soluble homogeneous catalyst as an aqueous solution from a product that is soluble in organic solvents. In contrast, the use of heterogeneous catalysts facilitates catalyst recycling by allowing simple centrifugation and filtration methods to be used. This Review addresses advances over the past decade in catalytic reactions using water as a reaction medium.

Enantioselective Catalysis by Using Short, Structurally Defined DNA Hairpins as Scaffold for Hybrid Catalysts

A new type of DNA metal complex hybrid catalyst, which is based on single-stranded DNA oligonucleotides, is described. It was shown that oligonucleotides as short as 14 nucleotides that fold into hairpin structures are suitable as nucleic acid components for DNA hybrid catalysts. With these catalysts, excellent enantioinduction in asymmetric Diels-Alder reactions with selectivity values as high as 96 % enantiomeric excess (ee) can be achieved. Molecular dynamics simulations indicate that a rather flexible loop combined with a rigid stem region provides DNA scaffolds with these high selectivity values.

Effect of ligand sequence-specific modification on DNA hybrid catalysis

We report a sequence-specific catalytic ligand as a chemical modification strategy to achieve DNA-based asymmetric reactions with sequence-dependent enantioselectivity.

A decade of DNA-hybrid catalysis: from innovation to comprehension

Since the pioneering work of Roelfes and Feringa in the field of DNA-based asymmetric catalysis, the unique chirality of oligonucleotides has allowed the development of a variety of asymmetric synthetic transformations. This review offers a complete overview of the field.

DNA-Accelerated Catalysis of Carbene-Transfer Reactions by a DNA/Cationic Iron Porphyrin Hybrid

A novel DNA-based hybrid catalyst comprised of salmon testes DNA and an iron(III) complex of a cationic meso-tetrakis(N-alkylpyridyl)porphyrin was developed. When the N-methyl substituents were placed at the ortho position with respect to the porphyrin ring, high reactivity in catalytic carbene-transfer reactions was observed under mild conditions, as demonstrated in the catalytic enantioselective cyclopropanation of styrene derivatives with ethyl diazoacetate (EDA) as the carbene precursor. A remarkable feature of this catalytic system is the large DNA-induced rate acceleration observed in this reaction and the related dimerization of EDA. It is proposed that high effective molarity of all components of the reaction in or near the DNA is one of the key contributors to this unique reactivity. This study demonstrates that the concept of DNA-based asymmetric catalysis can be expanded into the realm of organometallic chemistry.

Supramolecular Helical Systems: Helical Assemblies of Small Molecules, Foldamers, and Polymers with Chiral Amplification and Their Functions

In this review, we describe the recent advances in supramolecular helical assemblies formed from chiral and achiral small molecules, oligomers (foldamers), and helical and nonhelical polymers from the viewpoints of their formations with unique chiral phenomena, such as amplification of chirality during the dynamic helically assembled processes, properties, and specific functionalities, some of which have not been observed in or achieved by biological systems. In addition, a brief historical overview of the helical assemblies of small molecules and remarkable progress in the synthesis of single-stranded and multistranded helical foldamers and polymers, their properties, structures, and functions, mainly since 2009, will also be described.

Expanding biohybrid-mediated asymmetric catalysis into the realm of RNA

We report here the first example of an RNA-based catalyst involving a catalytically active metal complex interacting in a non-covalent fashion with short RNA sequences.

Turning Cucurbit[8]uril into a Supramolecular Nanoreactor for Asymmetric Catalysis

Chiral macromolecules have been widely used as synthetic pockets to mimic natural enzymes and promote asymmetric reactions. An achiral host, cucurbit[8]uril (CB[8]), was used for an asymmetric Lewis acid catalyzed Diels-Alder reaction. We achieved a remarkable increase in enantioselectivity and a large rate acceleration in the presence of the nanoreactor by using an amino acid as the chiral source. Mechanistic and computational studies revealed that both the amino acid-Cu2+ complex and the dienophile substrate are included inside the macrocyclic host cavity, suggesting that contiguity and conformational constraints are fundamental to the catalytic process and rate enhancement. These results pave the way towards new studies on asymmetric reactions catalyzed in confined achiral cavities.

Binding of copper(II) polypyridyl complexes to DNA and consequences for DNA-based asymmetric catalysis

The interaction between salmon testes DNA (st-DNA) and a series of Cu(II) polypyridyl complexes, i.e. [Cu(dmbpy)(NO3)2] (1) (dmbpy = 4,4'-dimethyl-2,2'-bipyridine), [Cu(bpy)(NO3)2] (2) (bpy = 2,2'-bipyridine), [Cu(phen)(NO3)2] (3) (phen = phenanthroline), [Cu(terpy)(NO3)2]·H2O (4) (terpy = 2,2':6',2″-terpyridine), [Cu(dpq)(NO3)2] (5) (dpq = dipyrido-[3,2-d:2',3'-f]-quinoxaline) and [Cu(dppz)(NO3)2] (6) (dppz = dipyrido[3,2-a:2',3'-c]phenazine) was studied by UV/Vis absorption, Circular Dichroism, Linear Dichroism, EPR, Raman and (UV and vis) resonance Raman spectroscopies and viscometry. These complexes catalyse enantioselective C-C bond forming reactions in water with DNA as the source of chirality. Complex 1 crystallizes as an inorganic polymer with nitrate ligands bridging the copper ions, which adopt essentially a distorted square pyramidal structure with a fifth bridging nitrate ligand at the axial position. Raman spectroscopy indicates that in solution the nitrate ligands in 1, 2, 3 and 4 are displaced by solvent (H2O). For complex 1, multiple supramolecular species are observed in the presence of st-DNA in contrast to the other complexes, which appear to interact relatively uniformly as a single species predominantly, when st-DNA is present. Overall the data suggest that complexes 1 and 2 engage primarily through groove binding with st-DNA while 5 and 6 undergo intercalation. For complexes 3 and 4 the data indicates that both groove binding and intercalation takes place, albeit primarily intercalation. Although it is tempting to conclude that the groove binders give highest ee and rate acceleration, it is proposed that the flexibility and dynamics in binding of Cu(II) complexes to DNA are key parameters that determine the outcome of the reaction. These findings provide insight into the complex supramolecular structure of these DNA-based catalysts.

Turning Cucurbit[8]uril into a Supramolecular Nanoreactor for Asymmetric Catalysis

Chiral macromolecules have been widely used as synthetic pockets to mimic natural enzymes and promote asymmetric reactions. An achiral host, cucurbit[8]uril (CB[8]), was used for an asymmetric Lewis acid catalyzed Diels–Alder reaction. We achieved a remarkable increase in enantioselectivity and a large rate acceleration in the presence of the nanoreactor by using an amino acid as the chiral source. Mechanistic and computational studies revealed that both the amino acid–Cu²⁺ complex and the dienophile substrate are included inside the macrocyclic host cavity, suggesting that contiguity and conformational constraints are fundamental to the catalytic process and rate enhancement. These results pave the way towards new studies on asymmetric reactions catalyzed in confined achiral cavities.

Terpyridine-Cu(ii) targeting human telomeric DNA to produce highly stereospecific G-quadruplex DNA metalloenzyme

The cofactors commonly involved in natural enzymes have provided the inspiration for numerous advances in the creation of artificial metalloenzymes. Nevertheless, to design an appropriate cofactor for a given biomolecular scaffold or vice versa remains a challenge in developing efficient catalysts in biochemistry. Herein, we extend the idea of G-quadruplex-targeting anticancer drug design to construct a G-quadruplex DNA metalloenzyme. We found that a series of terpyridine-Cu(ii) complexes (CuLn) can serve as excellent cofactors to dock with human telemetric G-quadruplex DNA. The resulting G-quadruplex DNA metalloenzyme utilising CuL1 catalyzes an enantioselective Diels-Alder reaction with enantioselectivity of >99% enantiomeric excess and about 73-fold rate acceleration compared to CuL1 alone. The terpyridine-Cu(ii) complex cofactors demonstrate dual functions, both as an active site to perform catalysis and as a structural regulator to promote the folding of human telemetric G-quadruplex DNA towards excellent catalysts.

Octahedral Chiral-at-Metal Iridium Catalysts: Versatile Chiral Lewis Acids for Asymmetric Conjugate Additions

Octahedral iridium(III) complexes containing two bidentate cyclometalating 5-tert-butyl-2-phenylbenzoxazole (IrO) or 5-tert-butyl-2-phenylbenzothiazole (IrS) ligands in addition to two labile acetonitrile ligands are demonstrated to constitute a highly versatile class of asymmetric Lewis acid catalysts. These complexes feature the metal center as the exclusive source of chirality and serve as effective asymmetric catalysts (0.5-5.0 mol % catalyst loading) for a variety of reactions with α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds, namely Friedel-Crafts alkylations (94-99% ee), Michael additions with CH-acidic compounds (81-97% ee), and a variety of cycloadditions (92-99% ee with high d.r.). Mechanistic investigations and crystal structures of an iridium-coordinated substrates and iridium-coordinated products are consistent with a mechanistic picture in which the α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds are activated by two-point binding (bidentate coordination) to the chiral Lewis acid.

Highly Efficient Chirality Transfer from Diamines Encapsulated within a Self-Assembled Calixarene-Salen Host

A calix[4]arene host equipped with two bis-[Zn(salphen)] complexes self-assembles into a capsular complex in the presence of a chiral diamine guest with an unexpected 2:1 ratio between the host and the guest. Effective chirality transfer from the diamine to the calix-salen hybrid host is observed by circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy, and a high stability constant K2,1 of 1.59×10(11)  M(-2) for the assembled host-guest ensemble has been determined with a substantial cooperativity factor α of 6.4. Density functional calculations are used to investigate the origin of the stability of the host-guest system and the experimental CD spectrum compared with those calculated for both possible diastereoisomers showing that the M,M isomer is the one that is preferentially formed. The current system holds promise for the chirality determination of diamines, as evidenced by the investigated substrate scope and the linear relationship between the ee of the diamine and the amplitude of the observed Cotton effects.

DNA-cellulose: an economical, fully recyclable and highly effective chiral biomaterial for asymmetric catalysis

We report here the first generation of a DNA-based catalyst bound to a cellulose matrix. The chiral biomaterial is commercially available, trivial to use, highly selective and fully recyclable.

Characterisation of the interactions between substrate, copper(ii) complex and DNA and their role in rate acceleration in DNA-based asymmetric catalysis

High effective molarity is responsible for the significant increase of binding of substrates to copper(ii) complexes in DNA-based catalysis.

Artificial concurrent catalytic processes involving enzymes

The concurrent operation of multiple catalysts can lead to enhanced reaction features including (i) simultaneous linear multi-step transformations in a single reaction flask (ii) the control of intermediate equilibria (iii) stereoconvergent transformations (iv) rapid processing of labile reaction products. Enzymes occupy a prominent position for the development of such processes, due to their high potential compatibility with other biocatalysts. Genes for different enzymes can be co-expressed to reconstruct natural or construct artificial pathways and applied in the form of engineered whole cell biocatalysts to carry out complex transformations or, alternatively, the enzymes can be combined in vitro after isolation. Moreover, enzyme variants provide a wider substrate scope for a given reaction and often display altered selectivities and specificities. Man-made transition metal catalysts and engineered or artificial metalloenzymes also widen the range of reactivities and catalysed reactions that are potentially employable. Cascades for simultaneous cofactor or co-substrate regeneration or co-product removal are now firmly established. Many applications of more ambitious concurrent cascade catalysis are only just beginning to appear in the literature. The current review presents some of the most recent examples, with an emphasis on the combination of transition metal with enzymatic catalysis and aims to encourage researchers to contribute to this emerging field.