1
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Liu H, Teng Z, Dong H, Li J, Waheed Abdullah S, Zhang Y, Wu J, Guo H, Sun S. Poly(I:C) and CpG improve the assembly of foot-and-mouth disease virus-like particles and immune response in mice. Virology 2023; 579:94-100. [PMID: 36623353 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2022.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Revised: 12/25/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Virus-like particles (VLPs) are extremely potent, safe, and serviceable vaccine platforms. Good assembly efficiency of VLPs is the key to reducing vaccine production costs and eliciting a robust immune response. This study adopted CpG and Poly (I:C) as scaffolds to facilitate the assembly of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) VLPs in vitro. The VLPs and the co-assembly products were characterized by particle size, zeta potential, gel retardation measurement, nuclease digestion experiments, size-exclusion chromatography, transmission electron microscopy and circular dichroism analysis. Our results indicated the successful encapsulation of CpG and Poly (I:C) inside VLPs without any effect on shape or size. Vaccination in mice also elicited a robust immune response. This study demonstrated that CpG and Poly (I:C) improved the efficiency of FMDV VLPs assembly and enhanced immune response, further proposing a new idea for improving the efficiency of VLPs assembly and enriching the in vitro VLPs assembly strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiyun Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot-and-Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, 730046, PR China
| | - Zhidong Teng
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot-and-Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, 730046, PR China
| | - Hu Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot-and-Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, 730046, PR China
| | - Jiajun Li
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot-and-Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, 730046, PR China
| | - Sahibzada Waheed Abdullah
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot-and-Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, 730046, PR China
| | - Yun Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot-and-Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, 730046, PR China
| | - Jinen Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot-and-Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, 730046, PR China
| | - Huichen Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot-and-Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, 730046, PR China
| | - Shiqi Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot-and-Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, 730046, PR China.
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2
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Xu Y, Yang YR, Shi Q, Ward AB, Huang K, Chen X, Wang W, Yang Y. An Infectious Virus-like Particle Built on a Programmable Icosahedral DNA Framework. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202214731. [PMID: 36377708 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202214731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Viral genomes can be compressed into a near-spherical nanochamber to form infectious particles. In order to mimic the virus morphology and packaging behavior, we invented a programmable icosahedral DNA nanoframe with enhanced rigidity and encapsulated the phiX174 bacteriophage genome. The packaging efficiency could be modulated through specific anchoring strands adjustment, and the trapped phage genome remained accessible for enzymatic operations. Moreover, the packed complex could infect Escherichia coli (E. coli) cells through bacterial uptake to produce plaques. This rigid icosahedral DNA architecture demonstrated a versatile platform to develop virus mimetic particles for convenient functional nucleic acid entrapment, manipulation and delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunyun Xu
- School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Shanghai Key Laboratory for Nucleic Acid Chemistry and Nanomedicine, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji Hospital, 1630 Dongfang Road, B17-1820, Pudong, Shanghai, 200127, P.R. China
| | - Yuhe R Yang
- National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 11 ZhongGuanCun BeiYiTiao, Beijing, 100190, P.R. China.,Department of Integrative Structural and Computational Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Qian Shi
- School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Shanghai Key Laboratory for Nucleic Acid Chemistry and Nanomedicine, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji Hospital, 1630 Dongfang Road, B17-1820, Pudong, Shanghai, 200127, P.R. China
| | - Andrew B Ward
- Department of Integrative Structural and Computational Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Kui Huang
- School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Shanghai Key Laboratory for Nucleic Acid Chemistry and Nanomedicine, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji Hospital, 1630 Dongfang Road, B17-1820, Pudong, Shanghai, 200127, P.R. China
| | - Xiao Chen
- School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Shanghai Key Laboratory for Nucleic Acid Chemistry and Nanomedicine, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji Hospital, 1630 Dongfang Road, B17-1820, Pudong, Shanghai, 200127, P.R. China
| | - Wei Wang
- School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Shanghai Key Laboratory for Nucleic Acid Chemistry and Nanomedicine, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji Hospital, 1630 Dongfang Road, B17-1820, Pudong, Shanghai, 200127, P.R. China
| | - Yang Yang
- School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Shanghai Key Laboratory for Nucleic Acid Chemistry and Nanomedicine, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Renji Hospital, 1630 Dongfang Road, B17-1820, Pudong, Shanghai, 200127, P.R. China
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3
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Single-particle studies of the effects of RNA-protein interactions on the self-assembly of RNA virus particles. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2206292119. [PMID: 36122222 PMCID: PMC9522328 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2206292119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the pathways by which simple RNA viruses self-assemble from their coat proteins and RNA is of practical and fundamental interest. Although RNA-protein interactions are thought to play a critical role in the assembly, our understanding of their effects is limited because the assembly process is difficult to observe directly. We address this problem by using interferometric scattering microscopy, a sensitive optical technique with high dynamic range, to follow the in vitro assembly kinetics of more than 500 individual particles of brome mosaic virus (BMV)-for which RNA-protein interactions can be controlled by varying the ionic strength of the buffer. We find that when RNA-protein interactions are weak, BMV assembles by a nucleation-and-growth pathway in which a small cluster of RNA-bound proteins must exceed a critical size before additional proteins can bind. As the strength of RNA-protein interactions increases, the nucleation time becomes shorter and more narrowly distributed, but the time to grow a capsid after nucleation is largely unaffected. These results suggest that the nucleation rate is controlled by RNA-protein interactions, while the growth process is driven less by RNA-protein interactions and more by protein-protein interactions and intraprotein forces. The nucleated pathway observed with the plant virus BMV is strikingly similar to that previously observed with bacteriophage MS2, a phylogenetically distinct virus with a different host kingdom. These results raise the possibility that nucleated assembly pathways might be common to other RNA viruses.
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4
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Scotti A, Gasser U, Petrunin AV, Fruhner L, Richtering W, Houston JE. Experimental determination of the bulk moduli of hollow nanogels. SOFT MATTER 2022; 18:5750-5758. [PMID: 35899831 DOI: 10.1039/d2sm00680d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The softness of an object can be quantified by one of the fundamental elastic moduli. The bulk modulus of the particle is most appropriate in the presence of isotropic compressions. Here, we use small-angle neutron scattering with contrast variation to directly access the bulk modulus of polymeric nanocapsules - pNIPAM-based hollow nanogels. We show that the size of the cavity is the most important quantity that determines the softness of hollow nanogels. During initial compression, the polymer collapses into the cavity and leads to a large change in the particle volume, resulting in a very small initial bulk modulus. Once the cavity is partially occupied by the polymer, the hollow nanogels become significantly stiffer since now the highly crosslinked network has to be compressed. Furthermore, we show that the larger the cavity, the softer the nanogel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Scotti
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, 52056 Aachen, Germany.
| | - Urs Gasser
- Laboratory for Neutron Scattering and Imaging, Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | | | - Lisa Fruhner
- Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH Jülich Centre for Neutron Science (JCNS-1) and Institute for Biological Information processing (IBI-8), 52425 Jülich, Germany
| | - Walter Richtering
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, 52056 Aachen, Germany.
| | - Judith E Houston
- European Spallation Source ERIC, Box 176, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden
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5
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Houston JE, Fruhner L, de la Cotte A, Rojo González J, Petrunin AV, Gasser U, Schweins R, Allgaier J, Richtering W, Fernandez-Nieves A, Scotti A. Resolving the different bulk moduli within individual soft nanogels using small-angle neutron scattering. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2022; 8:eabn6129. [PMID: 35776796 PMCID: PMC10883365 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abn6129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The bulk modulus, K, quantifies the elastic response of an object to an isotropic compression. For soft compressible colloids, knowing K is essential to accurately predict the suspension response to crowding. Most colloids have complex architectures characterized by different softness, which additionally depends on compression. Here, we determine the different values of K for the various morphological parts of individual nanogels and probe the changes of K with compression. Our method uses a partially deuterated polymer, which exerts the required isotropic stress, and small-angle neutron scattering with contrast matching to determine the form factor of the particles without any scattering contribution from the polymer. We show a clear difference in softness, compressibility, and evolution of K between the shell of the nanogel and the rest of the particle, depending on the amount of cross-linker used in their synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lisa Fruhner
- Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH Jülich Centre for Neutron Science (JCNS-1) and Institute for Biological Information Processing (IBI-8), 52425 Jülich, Germany
| | - Alexis de la Cotte
- Department of Condensed Matter Physics, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Javier Rojo González
- Department of Condensed Matter Physics, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Urs Gasser
- Laboratory for Neutron Scattering and Imaging, Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Ralf Schweins
- Institut Laue-Langevin ILL DS/LSS, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Jürgen Allgaier
- Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH Jülich Centre for Neutron Science (JCNS-1) and Institute for Biological Information Processing (IBI-8), 52425 Jülich, Germany
| | - Walter Richtering
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, 52056 Aachen, Germany
- JARA-SOFT, 52056 Aachen, Germany
| | - Alberto Fernandez-Nieves
- Department of Condensed Matter Physics, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- ICREA-Institucio Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avancats, 08010 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Andrea Scotti
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, 52056 Aachen, Germany
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6
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Scotti A, Schulte MF, Lopez CG, Crassous JJ, Bochenek S, Richtering W. How Softness Matters in Soft Nanogels and Nanogel Assemblies. Chem Rev 2022; 122:11675-11700. [PMID: 35671377 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Softness plays a key role in determining the macroscopic properties of colloidal systems, from synthetic nanogels to biological macromolecules, from viruses to star polymers. However, we are missing a way to quantify what the term "softness" means in nanoscience. Having quantitative parameters is fundamental to compare different systems and understand what the consequences of softness on the macroscopic properties are. Here, we propose different quantities that can be measured using scattering methods and microscopy experiments. On the basis of these quantities, we review the recent literature on micro- and nanogels, i.e. cross-linked polymer networks swollen in water, a widely used model system for soft colloids. Applying our criteria, we address the question what makes a nanomaterial soft? We discuss and introduce general criteria to quantify the different definitions of softness for an individual compressible colloid. This is done in terms of the energetic cost associated with the deformation and the capability of the colloid to isotropically deswell. Then, concentrated solutions of soft colloids are considered. New definitions of softness and new parameters, which depend on the particle-to-particle interactions, are introduced in terms of faceting and interpenetration. The influence of the different synthetic routes on the softness of nanogels is discussed. Concentrated solutions of nanogels are considered and we review the recent results in the literature concerning the phase behavior and flow properties of nanogels both in three and two dimensions, in the light of the different parameters we defined. The aim of this review is to look at the results on micro- and nanogels in a more quantitative way that allow us to explain the reported properties in terms of differences in colloidal softness. Furthermore, this review can give researchers dealing with soft colloids quantitative methods to define unambiguously which softness matters in their compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Scotti
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Landoltweg 2, 52056 Aachen, Germany, European Union
| | - M Friederike Schulte
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Landoltweg 2, 52056 Aachen, Germany, European Union
| | - Carlos G Lopez
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Landoltweg 2, 52056 Aachen, Germany, European Union
| | - Jérôme J Crassous
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Landoltweg 2, 52056 Aachen, Germany, European Union
| | - Steffen Bochenek
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Landoltweg 2, 52056 Aachen, Germany, European Union
| | - Walter Richtering
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Landoltweg 2, 52056 Aachen, Germany, European Union
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7
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Kuan SL, Raabe M. Solid-Phase Protein Modifications: Towards Precision Protein Hybrids for Biological Applications. ChemMedChem 2021; 16:94-104. [PMID: 32667697 PMCID: PMC7818443 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202000412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Proteins have attracted increasing attention as biopharmaceutics and diagnostics due to their high specificity, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. The biopharmaceutical sector in particular is experiencing rapid growth, which has led to an increase in the production and sale of protein drugs and diagnostics over the last two decades. Since the first-generation biopharmaceutics dominated by native proteins, both recombinant and chemical technologies have evolved and transformed the outlook of this rapidly developing field. This review article presents updates on the fabrication of covalent and supramolecular fusion hybrids, as well as protein-polymer hybrids using solid-phase approaches that hold great promise for preparing protein hybrids with precise control at the macromolecular level to incorporate additional features. In addition, the applications of the resultant protein hybrids in medicine and diagnostics are highlighted where possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seah Ling Kuan
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer ResearchAckermannweg 1055128MainzGermany
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry IUlm UniversityAlbert-Einstein-Allee 1189081UlmGermany
| | - Marco Raabe
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer ResearchAckermannweg 1055128MainzGermany
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry IUlm UniversityAlbert-Einstein-Allee 1189081UlmGermany
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8
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Wege C, Koch C. From stars to stripes: RNA-directed shaping of plant viral protein templates-structural synthetic virology for smart biohybrid nanostructures. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2019; 12:e1591. [PMID: 31631528 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Revised: 08/04/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The self-assembly of viral building blocks bears exciting prospects for fabricating new types of bionanoparticles with multivalent protein shells. These enable a spatially controlled immobilization of functionalities at highest surface densities-an increasing demand worldwide for applications from vaccination to tissue engineering, biocatalysis, and sensing. Certain plant viruses hold particular promise because they are sustainably available, biodegradable, nonpathogenic for mammals, and amenable to in vitro self-organization of virus-like particles. This offers great opportunities for their redesign into novel "green" carrier systems by spatial and structural synthetic biology approaches, as worked out here for the robust nanotubular tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) as prime example. Natural TMV of 300 x 18 nm is built from more than 2,100 identical coat proteins (CPs) helically arranged around a 6,395 nucleotides ssRNA. In vitro, TMV-like particles (TLPs) may self-assemble also from modified CPs and RNAs if the latter contain an Origin of Assembly structure, which initiates a bidirectional encapsidation. By way of tailored RNA, the process can be reprogrammed to yield uncommon shapes such as branched nanoobjects. The nonsymmetric mechanism also proceeds on 3'-terminally immobilized RNA and can integrate distinct CP types in blends or serially. Other emerging plant virus-deduced systems include the usually isometric cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV) with further strikingly altered structures up to "cherrybombs" with protruding nucleic acids. Cartoon strips and pictorial descriptions of major RNA-based strategies induct the reader into a rare field of nanoconstruction that can give rise to utile soft-matter architectures for complex tasks. This article is categorized under: Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Protein and Virus-Based Structures Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Nucleic Acid-Based Structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Wege
- Department of Molecular Biology and Plant Virology, Institute of Biomaterials and Biomolecular Systems, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Claudia Koch
- Department of Molecular Biology and Plant Virology, Institute of Biomaterials and Biomolecular Systems, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
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9
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Measurements of the self-assembly kinetics of individual viral capsids around their RNA genome. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:22485-22490. [PMID: 31570619 PMCID: PMC6842639 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1909223116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Self-assembly is a process in which functional nanoscale structures build themselves, driven by Brownian motion and interactions between components. The term was originally coined to describe the formation of a viral capsid, the protein shell that protects the genome of a virus. Despite decades of study, how capsids self-assemble has remained a mystery, because there were no methods to measure the assembly kinetics of individual capsids. We surmount this obstacle using a sensitive microscopy technique based on laser interferometry. The measurements show that a small nucleus of proteins must form on the viral RNA before the capsid assembles. These results might help researchers design strategies to stop the assembly of pathogenic viruses or to build synthetic nanostructures. Self-assembly is widely used by biological systems to build functional nanostructures, such as the protein capsids of RNA viruses. But because assembly is a collective phenomenon involving many weakly interacting subunits and a broad range of timescales, measurements of the assembly pathways have been elusive. We use interferometric scattering microscopy to measure the assembly kinetics of individual MS2 bacteriophage capsids around MS2 RNA. By recording how many coat proteins bind to each of many individual RNA strands, we find that assembly proceeds by nucleation followed by monotonic growth. Our measurements reveal the assembly pathways in quantitative detail and also show their failure modes. We use these results to critically examine models of the assembly process.
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10
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Twarock R, Stockley PG. RNA-Mediated Virus Assembly: Mechanisms and Consequences for Viral Evolution and Therapy. Annu Rev Biophys 2019; 48:495-514. [PMID: 30951648 PMCID: PMC7612295 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-biophys-052118-115611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Viruses, entities composed of nucleic acids, proteins, and in some cases lipids lack the ability to replicate outside their target cells. Their components self-assemble at the nanoscale with exquisite precision-a key to their biological success in infection. Recent advances in structure determination and the development of biophysical tools such as single-molecule spectroscopy and noncovalent mass spectrometry allow unprecedented access to the detailed assembly mechanisms of simple virions. Coupling these techniques with mathematical modeling and bioinformatics has uncovered a previously unsuspected role for genomic RNA in regulating formation of viral capsids, revealing multiple, dispersed RNA sequence/structure motifs [packaging signals (PSs)] that bind cognate coat proteins cooperatively. The PS ensemble controls assembly efficiency and accounts for the packaging specificity seen in vivo. The precise modes of action of the PSs vary between viral families, but this common principle applies across many viral families, including major human pathogens. These insights open up the opportunity to block or repurpose PS function in assembly for both novel antiviral therapy and gene/drug/vaccine applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reidun Twarock
- Departments of Mathematics and Biology, and York Cross-disciplinary Centre for Systems Analysis, University of York, York YO10 5GE, United Kingdom;
| | - Peter G Stockley
- Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom;
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11
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Plant virus-based materials for biomedical applications: Trends and prospects. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2019; 145:96-118. [PMID: 30176280 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2018.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Revised: 08/06/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Nanomaterials composed of plant viral components are finding their way into medical technology and health care, as they offer singular properties. Precisely shaped, tailored virus nanoparticles (VNPs) with multivalent protein surfaces are efficiently loaded with functional compounds such as contrast agents and drugs, and serve as carrier templates and targeting vehicles displaying e.g. peptides and synthetic molecules. Multiple modifications enable uses including vaccination, biosensing, tissue engineering, intravital delivery and theranostics. Novel concepts exploit self-organization capacities of viral building blocks into hierarchical 2D and 3D structures, and their conversion into biocompatible, biodegradable units. High yields of VNPs and proteins can be harvested from plants after a few days so that various products have reached or are close to commercialization. The article delineates potentials and limitations of biomedical plant VNP uses, integrating perspectives of chemistry, biomaterials sciences, molecular plant virology and process engineering.
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12
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Garmann RF, Knobler CM, Gelbart WM. Protocol for Efficient Cell-Free Synthesis of Cowpea Chlorotic Mottle Virus-Like Particles Containing Heterologous RNAs. Methods Mol Biol 2019; 1776:249-265. [PMID: 29869247 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-7808-3_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We report a protocol for efficient cell-free synthesis of cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV)-like particles containing a broad range of lengths and sequences of RNA. Our protocol starts with a purified stock of wild-type CCMV (protocols for harvesting and purifying the virus are detailed elsewhere) and features three basic steps: disassembly of the CCMV and purification of the capsid protein (CP) from the viral RNA; coassembly of the purified CP and an RNA of choice; and characterization of the assembly products. We highlight several key factors that increase the yield of the assembly reaction: the CP should be uncleaved and sufficiently free of viral RNA; the length of the RNA should be between about 100 and 4000 nucleotides; and the stoichiometry of CP and RNA should be 6-1 by mass. Additionally, we point out that separating the assembly reaction into multiple steps-by successively lowering the ionic strength and then the pH of the assembly buffers-results in the highest yields of well-formed, nuclease-resistant, CCMV-like particles. Finally, we describe methods for characterizing the assembly products using native agarose gel electrophoresis and negative-stain transmission electron microscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rees F Garmann
- Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA.
| | - Charles M Knobler
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - William M Gelbart
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,California NanoSystems Institute, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,Molecular Biology Institute, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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13
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Chen J, Lansac Y, Tresset G. Interactions between the Molecular Components of the Cowpea Chlorotic Mottle Virus Investigated by Molecular Dynamics Simulations. J Phys Chem B 2018; 122:9490-9498. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.8b08026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jingzhi Chen
- Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405 Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Yves Lansac
- GREMAN, UMR 7347, CNRS, Université de Tours, 37200 Tours, France
| | - Guillaume Tresset
- Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405 Orsay Cedex, France
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14
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Nonequilibrium self-assembly dynamics of icosahedral viral capsids packaging genome or polyelectrolyte. Nat Commun 2018; 9:3071. [PMID: 30082710 PMCID: PMC6078970 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-05426-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The survival of viruses partly relies on their ability to self-assemble inside host cells. Although coarse-grained simulations have identified different pathways leading to assembled virions from their components, experimental evidence is severely lacking. Here, we use time-resolved small-angle X-ray scattering to uncover the nonequilibrium self-assembly dynamics of icosahedral viral capsids packaging their full RNA genome. We reveal the formation of amorphous complexes via an en masse pathway and their relaxation into virions via a synchronous pathway. The binding energy of capsid subunits on the genome is moderate (~7kBT0, with kB the Boltzmann constant and T0 = 298 K, the room temperature), while the energy barrier separating the complexes and the virions is high (~ 20kBT0). A synthetic polyelectrolyte can lower this barrier so that filled capsids are formed in conditions where virions cannot build up. We propose a representation of the dynamics on a free energy landscape. The mechanism by which virus capsules assemble around RNA to package their genetic material is not clear. Here, the authors observed the assembly of the cowpea chlorotic mottle virus capsid around viral RNA or poly(styrene sulfonic acid) using time-resolved small-angle X-ray scattering measurements.
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15
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Twarock R, Bingham RJ, Dykeman EC, Stockley PG. A modelling paradigm for RNA virus assembly. Curr Opin Virol 2018; 31:74-81. [PMID: 30078702 PMCID: PMC6281560 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2018.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2018] [Accepted: 07/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Virus assembly, a key stage in any viral life cycle, had long been considered to be primarily driven by protein-protein interactions and nonspecific interactions between genomic RNA and capsid protein. We review here a modelling paradigm for RNA virus assembly that illustrates the crucial roles of multiple dispersed, specific interactions between viral genomes and coat proteins in capsid assembly. The model reveals how multiple sequence-structure motifs in the genomic RNA, termed packaging signals, with a shared coat protein recognition motif enable viruses to overcome a viral assembly-equivalent of Levinthal's Paradox in protein folding. The fitness advantages conferred by this mechanism suggest that it should be widespread in viruses, opening up new perspectives on viral evolution and anti-viral therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reidun Twarock
- York Centre for Cross-disciplinary Systems Analysis, University of York, York YO10 5GE, UK; Department of Mathematics, University of York, York YO10 5DD, UK; Department of Biology, University of York, York YO10 5NG, UK.
| | - Richard J Bingham
- York Centre for Cross-disciplinary Systems Analysis, University of York, York YO10 5GE, UK; Department of Mathematics, University of York, York YO10 5DD, UK; Department of Biology, University of York, York YO10 5NG, UK
| | - Eric C Dykeman
- York Centre for Cross-disciplinary Systems Analysis, University of York, York YO10 5GE, UK; Department of Mathematics, University of York, York YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Peter G Stockley
- Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT UK
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16
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Zhou K, Ke Y, Wang Q. Selective in Situ Assembly of Viral Protein onto DNA Origami. J Am Chem Soc 2018; 140:8074-8077. [PMID: 29932333 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.8b03914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Engineering hybrid protein-DNA assemblies in a controlled manner has attracted particular attention, for their potential applications in biomedicine and nanotechnology due to their intricate folding properties and important physiological roles. Although DNA origami has served as a powerful platform for spatially arranging functional molecules, in situ assembly of proteins onto DNA origami is still challenging, especially in a precisely controlled and facile manner. Here, we demonstrate in situ assembly of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) coat proteins onto DNA origami to generate programmable assembly of hybrid DNA origami-protein nanoarchitectures. The protein nanotubes of controlled length are precisely anchored on the DNA origami at selected locations using TMV genome-mimicking RNA strands. This study opens a new route to the organization of protein and DNA into sophisticated protein-DNA nanoarchitectures by harnessing the viral encapsidation mechanism and the programmability of DNA origami.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun Zhou
- CAS Key Laboratory of Nano-Bio Interface, Division of Nanobiomedicine and i-Lab, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Suzhou 215123 , China
| | - Yonggang Ke
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering , Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University , Atlanta , Georgia 30322 , United States
| | - Qiangbin Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Nano-Bio Interface, Division of Nanobiomedicine and i-Lab, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Suzhou 215123 , China.,School of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics , University of Science and Technology of China , Hefei 230026 , China
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17
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Abstract
Within the materials science community, proteins with cage-like architectures are being developed as versatile nanoscale platforms for use in protein nanotechnology. Much effort has been focused on the functionalization of protein cages with biological and non-biological moieties to bring about new properties of not only individual protein cages, but collective bulk-scale assemblies of protein cages. In this review, we report on the current understanding of protein cage assembly, both of the cages themselves from individual subunits, and the assembly of the individual protein cages into higher order structures. We start by discussing the key properties of natural protein cages (for example: size, shape and structure) followed by a review of some of the mechanisms of protein cage assembly and the factors that influence it. We then explore the current approaches for functionalizing protein cages, on the interior or exterior surfaces of the capsids. Lastly, we explore the emerging area of higher order assemblies created from individual protein cages and their potential for new and exciting collective properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- William M Aumiller
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, USA.
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18
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Hou C, Guan S, Wang R, Zhang W, Meng F, Zhao L, Xu J, Liu J. Supramolecular Protein Assemblies Based on DNA Templates. J Phys Chem Lett 2017; 8:3970-3979. [PMID: 28792224 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.7b01564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
DNA plays an important role in the process of protein assembly. DNA viruses such as the M13 virus are typical examples in which single DNA genomes behave as templates to induce the assembly of multiple major coat protein (PVIII) monomers. Thus, the design of protein assemblies based on DNA templates attracts much interest in the construction of supramolecular structures and materials. With the development of DNA nanotechnology, precise 1D and 3D protein nanostructures have been designed and constructed by using DNA templates through DNA-protein interactions, protein-ligand interactions, and protein-adapter interactions. These DNA-templated protein assemblies show great potential in catalysis, medicine, light-responsive systems, drug delivery, and signal transduction. Herein, we review the progress on DNA-based protein nanostructures that possess sophisticated nanometer-sized structures with programmable shapes and stimuli-responsive parameters, and we present their great potential in the design of biomaterials and biodevices in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ruidi Wang
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia , Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Wei Zhang
- Zhuhai United Laboratories Co., Ltd. , Nation High & New Technology Industry Development Zone, Zhuhai 519040, China
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19
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Lam P, Steinmetz NF. Plant viral and bacteriophage delivery of nucleic acid therapeutics. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2017; 10. [DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2017] [Revised: 05/24/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Lam
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringCase Western Reserve UniversityClevelandOHUSA
| | - Nicole F. Steinmetz
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringCase Western Reserve UniversityClevelandOHUSA
- Department of RadiologyCase Western Reserve UniversityClevelandOHUSA
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringCase Western Reserve UniversityClevelandOHUSA
- Department of Macromolecular Science and EngineeringCase Western Reserve UniversityClevelandOHUSA
- Division of General Medical Sciences‐Oncology, Case Comprehensive Cancer CenterCase Western Reserve UniversityClevelandOHUSA
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20
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Zhijiang C, Qin Z, Xianyou S, Yuanpei L. Zein/Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-4-hydroxybutyrate) electrospun blend fiber scaffolds: Preparation, characterization and cytocompatibility. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2016; 71:797-806. [PMID: 27987775 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2016.10.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2016] [Revised: 07/23/2016] [Accepted: 10/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
In the present work, a series of Zein/Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-4-hydroxybutyrate) blend fiber scaffolds have been prepared by electrospinning method. The electrospun fibers showed a circular and uniform morphology with random distribution. The blend fiber scaffolds possessed well interconnected porous fibrous network structure with high porosity and large aspect surface areas. The FTIR and XPS spectra of Zein/P(3HB-co-4HB) blend fibers demonstrated the same characteristics to that of pure Zein and P(3HB-co-4HB) electrospun fibers. However, Zein might hinder the crystallization of P(3HB-co-4HB) owing to the formation of weak intermolecular interactions, which can affect the preferential orientation of P(3HB-co-4HB) molecules. Only one glass transition temperature (Tg) can be detected for electrospun Zein/P(3HB-co-4HB) blend fiber scaffolds implying the miscibility of Zein and P(3HB-co-4HB) in the blend fibers. The Zein/P(3HB-co-4HB) blend fiber scaffolds showed about 50% of improvement in tensile strength and 400% of increase in elongation at break by increasing P(3HB-co-4HB) content from 20% to 80%. The cytocompatibility of the Zein/P(3HB-co-4HB) blend fiber scaffolds was preliminarily evaluated by cell culture in vitro. The as-prepared electrospun Zein/P(3HB-co-4HB) blend fiber scaffolds with the characteristics of good biocompatibility, excellent pore characteristic as well as sufficient mechanical properties should be more promising for applications as tissue engineering scaffold.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cai Zhijiang
- School of Textiles, Tianjin Polytechnic University, Tianjin 300387, China; State Key Laboratory of Hollow Fiber Membrane Material and Processes, No 399 BingShuiXi Street, Tianjin 300387, XiQing District, China.
| | - Zhang Qin
- School of Textiles, Tianjin Polytechnic University, Tianjin 300387, China
| | - Song Xianyou
- School of Textiles, Tianjin Polytechnic University, Tianjin 300387, China
| | - Liu Yuanpei
- School of Textiles, Tianjin Polytechnic University, Tianjin 300387, China
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21
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Maassen SJ, van der Ham AM, Cornelissen JJLM. Combining Protein Cages and Polymers: from Understanding Self-Assembly to Functional Materials. ACS Macro Lett 2016; 5:987-994. [PMID: 35607217 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.6b00509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Protein cages, such as viruses, are well-defined biological nanostructures which are highly symmetrical and monodisperse. They are found in various shapes and sizes and can encapsulate or template non-native materials. Furthermore, the proteins can be chemically or genetically modified giving them new properties. For these reasons, these protein structures have received increasing attention in the field of polymer-protein hybrid materials over the past years, however, advances are still to be made. This Viewpoint highlights the different ways polymers and protein cages or their subunits have been combined to understand self-assembly and create functional materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stan J. Maassen
- Laboratory for Biomolecular
Nanotechnology, MESA+ Institute, University of Twente, P.O. Box 207, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Anne M. van der Ham
- Laboratory for Biomolecular
Nanotechnology, MESA+ Institute, University of Twente, P.O. Box 207, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen J. L. M. Cornelissen
- Laboratory for Biomolecular
Nanotechnology, MESA+ Institute, University of Twente, P.O. Box 207, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
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22
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Law-Hine D, Zeghal M, Bressanelli S, Constantin D, Tresset G. Identification of a major intermediate along the self-assembly pathway of an icosahedral viral capsid by using an analytical model of a spherical patch. SOFT MATTER 2016; 12:6728-36. [PMID: 27444997 DOI: 10.1039/c6sm01060a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Viruses are astonishing edifices in which hundreds of molecular building blocks fit into the final structure with pinpoint accuracy. We established a robust kinetic model accounting for the in vitro self-assembly of a capsid shell derived from an icosahedral plant virus by using time-resolved small-angle X-ray scattering (TR-SAXS) data at high spatiotemporal resolution. By implementing an analytical model of a spherical patch into a global fitting algorithm, we managed to identify a major intermediate species along the self-assembly pathway. With a series of data collected at different protein concentrations, we showed that free dimers self-assembled into a capsid through an intermediate resembling a half-capsid. The typical lifetime of the intermediate was a few seconds and yet the presence of so large an oligomer was not reported before. The progress in instrumental detection along with the development of powerful algorithms for data processing contribute to shedding light on nonequilibrium processes in highly complex systems such as viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Didier Law-Hine
- Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405 Orsay Cedex, France.
| | - Mehdi Zeghal
- Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405 Orsay Cedex, France.
| | - Stéphane Bressanelli
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Doru Constantin
- Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405 Orsay Cedex, France.
| | - Guillaume Tresset
- Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, CNRS, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405 Orsay Cedex, France.
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23
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Yao Z, Olvera de la Cruz M. Ordered Self-Similar Patterns in Anisotropic Stochastic Growth. J Phys Chem B 2016; 120:5960-5. [PMID: 27003104 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.6b01789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We propose an anisotropic stochastic growth model to rationalize the anisotropic self-assembly of supramolecules to form elongated two-dimensional ribbon structures in a recent experiment. The model exhibits distinct growth scenarios that are critically controlled by the ratio of the transverse and the longitudinal growth rate. In the regime of suppressed transverse growth, the model generates the experimentally observed elongated structures through layer-by-layer growing. We further observe the convergence of rough clusters toward smooth regular elliptic patterns by averaging over a number of independent growth processes. Remarkably, these resulting elliptic clusters are self-similar in each instantaneous moment in the growth process. Statistical analysis suggests that the realization of such ordered patterns does not rely on the delicate coordination of different parts in the cluster growth. The self-similarity phenomenon derived from this idealized model may have wider implications, notably in the designed clustering of various elementary building blocks with anisotropic interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenwei Yao
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, and Institute of Natural Sciences, Shanghai Jiao Tong University , Shanghai 200240, China
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24
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Liu A, Traulsen CHH, Cornelissen JJLM. Nitroarene Reduction by a Virus Protein Cage Based Nanoreactor. ACS Catal 2016. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.6b00106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Aijie Liu
- Laboratory for Biomolecular
Nanotechnology MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Christoph H.-H. Traulsen
- Laboratory for Biomolecular
Nanotechnology MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen J. L. M. Cornelissen
- Laboratory for Biomolecular
Nanotechnology MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
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25
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Rother M, Nussbaumer MG, Renggli K, Bruns N. Protein cages and synthetic polymers: a fruitful symbiosis for drug delivery applications, bionanotechnology and materials science. Chem Soc Rev 2016; 45:6213-6249. [DOI: 10.1039/c6cs00177g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Protein cages have become essential tools in bionanotechnology due to their well-defined, monodisperse, capsule-like structure. Combining them with synthetic polymers greatly expands their application, giving rise to novel nanomaterials fore.g.drug-delivery, sensing, electronic devices and for uses as nanoreactors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Rother
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Basel
- CH-4056 Basel
- Switzerland
| | - Martin G. Nussbaumer
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering
- Harvard University
- Cambridge
- USA
| | - Kasper Renggli
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering
- ETH Zürich
- 4058 Basel
- Switzerland
| | - Nico Bruns
- Adolphe Merkle Institute
- University of Fribourg
- CH-1700 Fribourg
- Switzerland
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