Homochiral [2]Catenane and Bis[2]catenane from Alleno-Acetylenic Helicates - A Highly Selective Narcissistic Self-Sorting Process

Dynamic mechanostereochemical switching of a co-conformationally flexible [2]catenane controlled by specific ionic guests

Responsive synthetic receptors for adaptive recognition of different ionic guests in a competitive environment are valuable molecular tools for not only ion sensing and transport, but also the development of ion-responsive smart materials and related technologies. By virtue of the mechanical chelation and ability to undergo large-amplitude co-conformational changes, described herein is the discovery of a chameleon-like [2]catenane that selectively binds copper(I) or sulfate ions and its associated co-conformational mechanostereochemical switching. This work highlights not only the advantages and versatility of catenane as a molecular skeleton in receptor design, but also its potential in constructing complex responsive systems with multiple inputs and outputs.

Cross-catenation between position-isomeric metallacages

The study of cross-catenated metallacages, which are complex self-assembly systems arising from multiple supramolecular interactions and hierarchical assembly processes, is currently lacking but could provide facile insights into achieving more precise control over low-symmetry/high-complexity hierarchical assembly systems. Here, we report a cross-catenane formed between two position-isomeric Pt(II) metallacages in the solid state. These two metallacages formed [2]catenanes in solution, whereas a 1:1 mixture selectively formed a cross-catenane in crystals. Varied temperature nuclear magnetic resonance experiments and time-of-flight mass spectra are employed to characterize the cross-catenation in solutions, and the dynamic library of [2]catenanes are shown. Additionally, we searched for the global-minimum structures of three [2]catenanes and re-optimized the low-lying structures using density functional theory calculations. Our results suggest that the binding energy of cross-catenanes is significantly larger than that of self-catenanes within the dynamic library, and the selectivity in crystallization of cross-catenanes is thermodynamic. This study presents a cross-catenated assembly from different metallacages, which may provide a facile insight for the development of low-symmetry/high-complexity self-assemble systems.

Controllable Topological Transformations of 818 Molecular Metalla-knots by Oxidation of Thiazole-Based Ligands

By exploiting coordination-driven self-assembly, high yields of two 818 molecular metalla-knots could be obtained using a thiazole-moiety-containing asymmetric dipyridyl ligand 2-(pyridin-4-yl)-5-(pyridin-4-ylethynyl)benzo[d]thiazole (L1 ), as confirmed using X-ray crystallographic analysis, electrospray ionization-time-of-flight/mass spectrometry (ESI-TOF/MS), and detailed liquid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. To modulate the self-assembled structures, m-chloroperbenzoic acid (m-CPBA) was utilized to oxidize thiazole-based ligand L1 to N-thiazole-oxide-based ligand 2-(pyridin-4-yl)-5-(pyridin-4-ylethynyl)benzo[d]thiazole 3-oxide (L2 ), which enabled the selective construction of the corresponding tetranuclear macrocycles. Notably, two molecular metalla-knots could be topologically transformed from 818 knots to simple monocycles because the L1 alkyne bond was inert toward m-CPBA, as confirmed by liquid-state NMR spectroscopy, ESI-TOF/MS, and elemental analysis.

Stoichiometric Control of Guest Recognition of Self-Assembled Palladium(II)-Based Supramolecular Architectures

We report flexible [Pd(L)2 ]2+ complexes where there is self-recognition, driven by π-π interactions between electron-rich aromatic arms and the cationic regions they are tethered to. This self-recognition hampers the association of these molecules with aromatic molecular targets in solution. In one case, this complex can be reversibly converted to an 'open' [Pd2 (L)2 ]4+ macrocycle through introduction of more metal ion. This is accomplished by the ligand having two bidentate binding sites: a 2-pyridyl-1,2,3-triazole site, and a bis-1,2,3-triazole site. Due to favourable hydrogen bonding, the 2-pyridyl-1,2,3-triazole units reliably coordinate in the [Pd(L)2 ]2+ complex to control speciation: a second equivalent of Pd(II) is required to enforce coordination to bis-triazole sites and form the macrocycle. The macrocycle interacts with a molecular substrate with higher affinity. In this fashion we are able to use stoichiometry to reversibly switch between two different species and regulate guest binding.

The sharp structural switch of covalent cages mediated by subtle variation of directing groups

It is considered a more formidable task to precisely control the self-assembled products containing purely covalent components, due to a lack of intrinsic templates such as transition metals to suppress entropy loss during self-assembly. Here, we attempt to tackle this challenge by using directing groups. That is, the self-assembly products of condensing a 1:2 mixture of a tetraformyl and a biamine can be precisely controlled by slightly changing the substituent groups in the aldehyde precursor. This is because different directing groups provide hydrogen bonds with different modes to the adjacent imine units, so that the building blocks are endowed with totally different conformations. Each conformation favors the formation of a specific product that is thus produced selectively, including chiral and achiral cages. These results of using a specific directing group to favor a target product pave the way for accomplishing atom economy in synthesizing purely covalent molecules without relying on toxic transition metal templates.

Mapping the Assembly of Neutral Tetrahedral Cages Tethered by Oximido Linkers and Their Guest Encapsulation Studies

A primary criterion for the design of polyhedral metal-organic cages is the requirement of geometrically matched pairs of metal ions and ligand moieties. However, understanding the pathway it takes to reach the final polyhedral structure can provide more insights into the self-assembly process and improved design strategies. In this regard, we report two neutral tetrahedral cages with the formulas {[Pd₃(NⁱPr)₃PO]₄(L¹)₆} (1-TD) and {[Pd₃(NⁱPr)₃PO]₄(L²)₆} (2-TD) starting from the acetate-bridged cluster {[Pd₃(NⁱPr)₃PO]₂(OAc)₂(OH)}₂·2(CH₃)₂SO (HEXA-Pd) and the respective oxamide precursors (L¹H₂: [C₂(NH₂)₂O₂]) and (L²H₂: (C₂(NHMe)₂O₂]). When subtle variations in the reaction conditions were made, two new tetrameric Pd₁₂ assemblies, {[Pd₃(NⁱPr)₃PO]₄(L¹)₂(OAc)₄(OMe)₄} (1-TM) and {[Pd₃(NⁱPr)₃PO]₄(L²)₂(OAc)₄(OMe)₄} (2-TM), were obtained from the same precursors. Detailed investigations using NMR, mass spectrometry, X-ray crystallography, and computational studies indicate that the macrocyclic complexes 1-TM and 2-TM are the reaction intermediates involved in the formation of the tetrahedral cages 1-TD and 2-TD, respectively. Moreover, the tetrahedral cages 1-TD and 2-TD exhibited intrinsic cavities of volume ∼85 ų. Guest encapsulation studies revealed that the cage 1-TD can encapsulate a wide range of guest molecules such as CH₂Cl₂, CHCl₃, CCl₄, C₆H₆, and C₆H₅F. Interestingly, 1-TD was shown to exhibit a preferential binding of C₆H₅F and C₆H₆ over other halogenated guest molecules, as determined from NMR titrations and computational studies.

Chirality-Driven Self-Assembly of Discrete, Homochiral FeII 2 L3 Cages

Coordination chemistry is a powerful method to synthesize supramolecular cages with distinct features that suit specific applications. This work demonstrates the synthesis of discrete, homochiral Fe^II ₂ L₃ cages via chirality-driven self-assembly. Specifically, the installation of chirality - at both the vertices and ligand backbones - allows the formation of discrete, homochiral Fe^II ₂ L₃ cages of different sizes via stereochemical control of the iron(II) centers. We observed that larger cages require multiple chiral centra (chiral ligands and vertices). In contrast, the formation of smaller cages is stereoselective with solely chiral ligands. The latter cages can also be formed from two chiral subcomponents, but only when they have matching chirality. Single-crystal X-ray diffraction of these smaller Fe^II ₂ L₃ cages revealed several non-covalent interactions as a driving force for narcissistic chiral self-sorting. This expected behavior was confirmed utilizing the shorter ligands in racemic form, yielding discrete, homochiral Fe^II ₂ L₃ cages formed in enantiomeric pairs.

Templation and Concentration Drive Conversion Between a FeII12L12 Pseudoicosahedron, a FeII4L4 Tetrahedron, and a FeII2L3 Helicate

We report the construction of three structurally distinct self-assembled architectures: Fe^II₁₂L₁₂ pseudoicosahedron 1, Fe^II₂L₃ helicate 2, and Fe^II₄L₄ tetrahedron 3, formed from a single triazatriangulenium subcomponent A under different reaction conditions. Pseudoicosahedral capsule 1 is the largest formed through subcomponent self-assembly to date, with an outer-sphere diameter of 5.4 nm and a cavity volume of 15 nm³. The outcome of self-assembly depended upon concentration, where the formation of pseudoicosahedron 1 was favored at higher concentrations, while helicate 2 exclusively formed at lower concentrations. The conversion of pseudoicosahedron 1 or helicate 2 into tetrahedron 3 occurred following the addition of a CB₁₁H₁₂^- or B₁₂F₁₂^2- template.

Metal Ions Determined Self-Assembly Using Terpyridine Building Blocks

Due to the dynamic reversibility of coordination-driven force, the structures of metallo-cages are sensitive to many stimulus, including ligand geometry, temperature, concentration, anions, pH, light, and so on. Among them,...

Stimuli-Responsive Topological Transformation of a Molecular Borromean Ring via Controlled Oxidation of Thioether Moieties

A Cp*-Rh based D-shaped binuclear metallacycle and a template-free molecular Borromean ring (BR) were obtained in high yield using the semi-rigid thioether dipyridyl ligand 1,4-bis[(pyridin-4-ylthio)methyl]benzene (Bptmb). The topological transformation from a binuclear metallacycle and a BR to tetranuclear metallacycles was realized via the controlled oxidation of thioethers. The strategy used in this work can be regarded as a new form of stimuli-responsive post-synthesis modification (PSM).

Sterics and Hydrogen Bonding Control Stereochemistry and Self-Sorting in BINOL-Based Assemblies

Here we demonstrate how the hydrogen-bonding ability of a BINOL-based dialdehyde subcomponent dictated the stereochemical outcome of its subsequent self-assembly into one diastereomeric helicate form when bearing free hydroxy groups, and another in the case of its methylated congener. The presence of methyl groups also altered the self-sorting behavior when mixed with another, short linear dialdehyde subcomponent, switching the outcome of the system from narcissistic to integrative self-sorting. In all cases, the axial chirality of the BINOL building block also dictated helicate metal center handedness during stereospecific self-assembly. A new family of stereochemically pure heteroleptic helicates were thus prepared using the new knowledge gained. We also found that switching from Fe^II to Zn^II, or the incorporation of a longer linear ligand, favored heteroleptic structure formation.

Helix-mediated over 1 nm-range chirality recognition by ligand-to-ligand interactions of dinuclear helicates

Long-range chirality recognition between the two chiral guest ligands can be tuned based on the helix distances (d_Ln–Ln = 11.5 and 14.0 Å) of bis-diketonate bridged dinuclear lanthanide complexes (2Th and 3Th, respectively) used as mediators. Both 2Th and 3Th form one-dimensional (1D) helical structures upon terminal binding of two chiral guest co-ligands (L^R or L^S). Long-range chiral self-recognition is achieved in self-assembly of 2Th with L^R and L^S to preferentially form homochiral assemblies, 2Th-L^R·L^R and 2Th-L^S·L^S, whereas there is no direct molecular interaction between the two guest ligands at the terminal edges. X-ray crystal structure analysis and density functional theory studies reveal that long-range chiral recognition is achieved by terminal ligand-to-ligand interactions between the bis-diketonate ligands and chiral guest co-ligands. Conversely, in self-assembly of 3Th with a longer helix length, statistical binding of L^R and L^S occurs, forming heterochiral (3Th-L^R·L^S) and homochiral (3Th-L^R·L^R and 3Th-L^S·L^S) assemblies in an almost 1 : 1 ratio. When phenyl side arms of the chiral guest co-ligands are replaced by isopropyl groups (L′^R and L′^S), chiral self-recognition is also achieved in the self-assembly process of 3Th with the longer helix length to generate homochiral (3Th-L′^R·L′^R and 3Th-L′^S·L′^S) assemblies as the favored products. Thus, subtle modification of the chiral guests is capable of achieving over 1.4 nm-range chirality recognition.

Long-range chirality recognition between the two chiral guest ligands can be tuned based on the helix distances (d_Ln–Ln = 11.5 and 14.0 Å) of bis-diketonate bridged dinuclear lanthanide complexes (2Th and 3Th, respectively).

Controlled Self-Assembly and Multistimuli-Responsive Interconversions of Three Conjoined Twin-Cages

Stimuli-responsive structural transformations between discrete coordination supramolecular architectures not only are essential to construct smart functional materials but also provide a versatile molecular-level platform to mimic the biological transformation process. We report here the controlled self-assembly of three topologically unprecedented conjoined twin-cages, i.e., one stapled interlocked Pd₁₂L₆ cage (2) and two helically isomeric Pd₆L₃ cages (3 and 4) made from the same cis-blocked palladium corners and a new bis-bidentate ligand (1). While cage 2 features three mechanically coupled cavities, cages 3 and 4 are topologically isomeric helicate-based twin-cages based on the same metal/ligand stoichiometry. Sole formation of cage 2 or a dynamic mixture of cages 3 and 4 can be controlled by changing the solvents employed during the self-assembly. Structural conversions between cages 3 and 4 can be triggered by changes in both temperature/solvent and induced-fit guest encapsulations. Well-controlled interconversion between such topologically complex superstructures may lay a solid foundation for achieving a variety of functions within a switchable system.

Using multiple self-sorting for switching functions in discrete multicomponent systems

Over years self-sorting has developed into a powerful tool in supramolecular chemistry, for instance, to promote the error-free formation of intricate multicomponent assemblies. However, in order to use the enormous potential of self-sorting for sophisticated information processing more recent developments have focused on the reversible reconfiguration of multicomponent systems driven by multiple self-sorting protocols. The present mini review will provide an overview over the latest advancements in this field with a focus on reversibly switchable functions in discrete supramolecular systems.

Zinc-Ion-Stabilized Charge-Transfer Interactions Drive Self-Complementary or Complementary Molecular Recognition

Here, we show that charge-transfer interactions determine whether donor and acceptor ditopic ligands will associate in a complementary or self-complementary fashion upon metal-ion clipping. Anthracene-based (^9,10L_D and ^1,5L_D) and anthraquinone-based (^1,5L_A) ditopic ligands containing two imidazole side arms as zinc coordination sites were designed. The ^9,10L_D and ^1,5L_A systems associated in a complementary fashion (L_A/L_D/L_A) upon clipping by two zinc ions (Zn²⁺) to form an alternating donor-acceptor assembly [(^9,10L_D)(^1,5L_A)₂-(Zn²⁺)₂]. However, once the charge-transfer interactions were perturbed by subtle modifications of the imidazole side arms (^9,10L_D'^(S) and ^1,5L_A'^(S)), self-complementary association (L_D'/L_D'/L_D'/L_D' and L_A'/L_A'/L_A'/L_A') between the donor (^9,10L_D'^(S)) and acceptor (^1,5L_A'^(S)) ligands predominantly occurred to form homoassemblies [(^9,10L_D'^(S))₄-(Zn²⁺)₂ and (^1,5L_A'^(S))₄-(Zn²⁺)₂]. As in the case of a homochiral pair (^9,10L_D'^(S) and ^1,5L_A'^(S)), self-complementary association (narcissistic self-sorting) occurred in the Zn²⁺ assembly with heterochiral combinations of the donor and acceptor ligands (^9,10L_D'^(S)/^1,5L_A'^(R) and ^9,10L_D'^(S)/^1,5L_A'^(R)/^1,5L_A'^(R)). Narcissistic self-sorting also took place between the positional isomer of the donor ligands (^9,10L_D and ^1,5L_D) to form individual homoligand assemblies [(^9,10L_D)₄-(Zn²⁺)₂ and (^1,5L_D)₄-(Zn²⁺)₂]. Conversely, statistical association took place in the Zn₂L₄ assembly process of an isomorphous pair of the donor and acceptor ligands (^1,5L_D and ^1,5L_A).

Coordination-Directed Construction of Molecular Links

Since the emergence of the concept of chemical topology, interlocked molecular assemblies have graduated from academic curiosities and poorly defined species to become synthetic realities. Coordination-directed synthesis provides powerful, diverse, and increasingly sophisticated protocols for accessing interlocked molecules. Originally, metal ions were employed solely as templates to gather and position building blocks in entwined or threaded arrangements. Recently, metal centers have increasingly featured within the backbones of the integral structural elements, which in turn use noncovalent interactions to self-assemble into intricate topologies. By outlining ingenious recent examples as well as seminal classic cases, this Review focuses on the role of metal-ligand paradigms in assembling molecular links. In addition, the ever-evolving approaches to efficient assembly, the structural features of the resulting architectures, and their prospects for the future are also presented.

Transformation Network Culminating in a Heteroleptic Cd6L6L'2 Twisted Trigonal Prism

Transformations between three-dimensional metallosupramolecular assemblies can enable switching between the different functions of these structures. Here we report a network of such transformations, based upon a subcomponent displacement strategy. The flow through this network is directed by the relative reactivities of different amines, aldehydes, and di(2-pyridyl)ketone. The network provides access to an unprecedented heteroleptic Cd6L6L'2 twisted trigonal prism. The principles underpinning this network thus allow for the design of diverse structural transformations, converting one helicate into another, a helicate into a tetrahedron, a tetrahedron into a different tetrahedron, and a tetrahedron into the new trigonal prismatic structure type. The selective conversion from one host to another also enabled the uptake of a desired guest from a mixture of guests.

A homochiral 3D framework of mechanically interlocked 1D loops with solvent-dependent spin-state switching behaviors

An atypical homochiral spin-crossover (SCO) framework (1) constructed from mechanically interlocked 1D molecular loops was prepared. Due to the flexibility of the interlocked structure, the guest solvent molecules can be reversibly exchanged. Consequently, its SCO behavior was capable of modulating between one- and two-stepped transitions in response to acetonitrile and methanol.

Remarkable self-sorting selectivity in covalently linked homochiral and heterochiral pairs driven by Pd2L4 helicate formation

Imidazole-based ditopic ligands bearing two chiral alkyl groups (LRR, LSS, and LRS) were synthesized. The ligands formed Pd2L4 helicates with palladium ions (Pd2+). Self-sorting occurred between LRR and LRS to form (Pd2+)2(LRR)4 and (Pd2+)2(LRS)4 homoligand assemblies, whereas mixing of LRR and LSS with Pd2+ gave a near statistical mixture.

Conformational control of Pd2L4 assemblies with unsymmetrical ligands

With increasing interest in the potential utility of metallo-supramolecular architectures for applications as diverse as catalysis and drug delivery, the ability to develop more complex assemblies is keenly sought after. Despite this, symmetrical ligands have been utilised almost exclusively to simplify the self-assembly process as without a significant driving foa mixture of isomeric products will be obtained. Although a small number of unsymmetrical ligands have been shown to serendipitously form well-defined metallo-supramolecular assemblies, a more systematic study could provide generally applicable information to assist in the design of lower symmetry architectures. Pd2L4 cages are a popular class of metallo-supramolecular assembly; research seeking to introduce added complexity into their structure to further their functionality has resulted in a handful of examples of heteroleptic structures, whilst the use of unsymmetrical ligands remains underexplored. Herein we show that it is possible to design unsymmetrical ligands in which either steric or geometric constraints, or both, can be incorporated into ligand frameworks to ensure exclusive formation of single isomers of three-dimensional Pd2L4 metallo-supramolecular assemblies with high fidelity. In this manner it is possible to access Pd2L4 cage architectures of reduced symmetry, a concept that could allow for the controlled spatial segregation of different functionalities within these systems. The introduction of steric directing groups was also seen to have a profound effect on the cage structures, suggesting that simple ligand modifications could be used to engineer structural properties.

Temperature Controls Guest Uptake and Release from Zn4L4 Tetrahedra

We report the preparation of triazatruxene-faced tetrahedral cage 1, which exhibits two diastereomeric configurations (T1 and T2) that differ in the handedness of the ligand faces relative to that of the octahedrally coordinated metal centers. At lower temperatures, T1 is favored, whereas T2 predominates at higher temperatures. Host–guest studies show that T1 binds small aliphatic guests, whereas T2 binds larger aromatic molecules, with these changes in binding preference resulting from differences in cavity size and degree of enclosure. Thus, by a change in temperature the cage system can be triggered to eject one bound guest and take up another.

Temperature-controlled repeatable scrambling and induced-sorting of building blocks between cubic assemblies

Separation of a homogeneous mixture of different components to reach an ordered out-of-equilibrium state in solution has attracted continuous attention. While this can be achieved using external chemical fuels or photo energy, an alternative energy source is heat. Here we realize a temperature-controlled cycle of transitions between ordered and disordered states based on a mixture of two kinds of building blocks that self-assemble into cubic structures (nanocubes). An almost statistical mixture of nanocubes (disordered state) is thermodynamically most stable at lower temperature (25 °C), while homoleptic assemblies composed of single components are preferentially produced at higher temperature (100 °C) followed by rapid cooling. The scrambling of the building blocks between the nanocubes takes place through the exchange of free building blocks dissociated from the nanocubes. Based on this mechanism, it is possible to accelerate, retard, and perfectly block the scrambling by the guest molecules encapsulated in the nanocubes.

In this paper, the authors study the temperature-controlled dynamic behavior of a system of nanocubes self-assembled from two different building blocks. Non-intuitively, the disordered, equilibrium state (a mixture of heteroleptic cubes) and the ordered, out-of-equilibrium state (a mixture of homoleptic cubes) are cycled by heating and subsequent rapid cooling.

Solvent-Switched Schiff-Base Macrocycles: Self-Sorting and Self-Assembly-Dependent Unconventional Organic Particles

Organic reaction is a powerful and versatile tool for the creation of various new substrates and materials. However, there have been few reports of the direct fabrication of organic particles by organic reactions. Herein, we report that water as a co-solvent can efficiently switch a [2 + 2] macrocycle (3) to a [1 + 1] macrocycle (4) in a Schiff-base reaction from the same precursors at room temperature. Unexpectedly, a series of tunable organic micro/nanoparticles, including solid microspheres, core-shell spheres, and vesicles, could be directly precipitated in one-step from the reaction medium with high yield. X-ray structure analysis and other characterizations indicated that social self-sorting and narcissistic self-sorting of the macrocyclic frameworks of 3 and 4 through noncovalent interactions play crucial roles in the formation of such organic particles. Most interestingly, the facile and mild fabrication conditions of the particles allowed us to accurately and in situ monitor their intermediate formation by controlling the reaction time. This work thus provides an advancement of the fabrication of tunable organic particles.

Chirality in rotaxanes and catenanes

Although chiral mechanically interlocked molecules (MIMs) have been synthesised and studied, enantiopure examples are relatively under-represented in the pantheon of reported catenanes and rotaxanes and the underlying chirality of the system is often even overlooked. This is changing with the advent of new applications of MIMs in catalysis, sensing and materials and the appearance of new methods to access unusual stereogenic units unique to the mechanical bond. Here we discuss the different stereogenic units that have been investigated in catenanes and rotaxanes, examples of their application, methods for assigning absolute stereochemistry and provide a perspective on future developments.

μCHILL: a lightweight, modular system for handling crystalline samples at low temperatures under inert conditions

A procedure for preparing and mounting crystals under inert conditions is demonstrated, using a specialized apparatus (μCHILL) to provide a cold gas stream fed from a liquid nitrogen (LN2) reservoir or an open bath heat exchanger. A second, dry gas stream at room temperature enwraps the cold gas, protecting the sample preparation zone from ambient moisture. The technique is extremely flexible, requiring only a single operator, little practice and almost no preparation time. The device enables operation in a wide temperature range (at least 213 K to room temperature), providing temperature control and very stable conditions with no icing for extended time periods. The flexible, modular and low-cost design is based on three-dimensional-printed parts and readily available standard components, potentially making the device available to a wide range of users and applications not limited to single-crystal studies.

A supramolecular lanthanide separation approach based on multivalent cooperative enhancement of metal ion selectivity

Multivalent cooperativity plays an important role in the supramolecular self-assembly process. Herein, we report a remarkable cooperative enhancement of both structural integrity and metal ion selectivity on metal-organic M4L4 tetrahedral cages self-assembled from a tris-tridentate ligand (L1) with a variety of metal ions spanning across the periodic table, including alkaline earth (CaII), transition (CdII), and all the lanthanide (LnIII) metal ions. All these M4L14 cages are stable to excess metal ions and ligands, which is in sharp contrast with the tridentate (L2) ligand and bis-tridentate (L3) ligand bearing the same coordination motif as L1. Moreover, high-precision metal ion self-sorting is observed during the mixed-metal self-assembly of tetrahedral M4L4 cages, but not on the M2L3 counterparts. Based on the strong cooperative metal ion self-recognition behavior of M4L4 cages, a supramolecular approach to lanthanide separation is demonstrated, offering a new design principle of next-generation extractants for highly efficient lanthanide separation.

Design and Assembly of Chiral Coordination Cages for Asymmetric Sequential Reactions

Supramolecular nanoreactors featuring multiple catalytically active sites are of great importance, especially for asymmetric catalysis, and are yet challenging to construct. Here we report the design and assembly of five chiral single- and mixed-linker tetrahedral coordination cages using six dicarboxylate ligands derived-from enantiopure Mn(salen), Cr(salen) and/or Fe(salen) as linear linkers and four Cp₃Zr₃ clusters as three-connected vertices. The formation of these cages was confirmed by a variety of techniques including single-crystal and powder X-ray diffraction, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer, quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry and energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry. The cages feature a nanoscale hydrophobic cavity decorated with the same or different catalytically active sites, and the mixed-linker cage bearing Mn(salen) and Cr(salen) species is shown to be an efficient supramolecular catalyst for sequential asymmetric alkene epoxidation/epoxide ring-opening reactions with up to 99.9% ee. The cage catalyst demonstrates improved activity and enantioselectivity over the free catalysts owing to stabilization of catalytically active metallosalen units and concentration of reactants within the cavity. Manipulation of catalytic organic linkers in cages can control the activities and selectivities, which may provide new opportunities for the design and assembly of novel functional supramolecular architectures.

Chiral two bladed ML2 metallamacrocycles: design, structures and solution behavior

Chiral two bladed complexes of [Co(L)₂][BF₄]₂ (1) and [Zn(L)₂][BF₄]₂ (2) containing an atropoisomeric semi-rigid bidentate ligand L were synthesized and characterized. They are obtained as homochiral species but in a racemic mixture via a ligand self-sorting mechanism. These enantiomers can be differentiated in solution using optically active anions.

Making a Right or Left Choice: Chiral Self-Sorting as a Tool for the Formation of Discrete Complex Structures

This review discusses chiral self-sorting-the process of choosing an interaction partner with a given chirality from a complex mixture of many possible racemic partners. Chiral self-sorting (also known as chiral self-recognition or chiral self-discrimination) is fundamental for creating functional structures in nature and in the world of chemistry because interactions between molecules of the same or the opposite chirality are characterized by different interaction energies and intrinsically different resulting structures. However, due to the similarity between recognition sites of enantiomers and common conformational lability, high fidelity homochiral or heterochiral self-sorting poses a substantial challenge. Chiral self-sorting occurs among natural and synthetic molecules that leads to the amplification of discrete species. The review covers a variety of complex self-assembled structures ranging from aggregates made of natural and racemic peptides and DNA, through artificial functional receptors, macrocyles, and cages to catalytically active metal complexes and helix mimics. The examples involve a plethora of reversible interactions: electrostatic interactions, π-π stacking, hydrogen bonds, coordination bonds, and dynamic covalent bonds. A generalized view of the examples collected from different fields allows us to suggest suitable geometric models that enable a rationalization of the observed experimental preferences and establishment of the rules that can facilitate further design.

Topological transformation of a trefoil knot into a [2]catenane

Kinetic and thermodynamic investigation of topological transformation of a trefoil knot into a [2]catenane in water.

Controlled self-sorting in self-assembled cage complexes

The construction of complex molecular machines and devices requires control of sub-component self-assembly. Varying the size or angle, and introducing secondary interactions into the backbone allows selective self-sorting between similar sub-components in metal–ligand cage complexes.