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Rom CL, O'Donnell S, Huang K, Klein RA, Kramer MJ, Smaha RW, Zakutayev A. Low-temperature synthesis of cation-ordered bulk Zn 3WN 4 semiconductor via heterovalent solid-state metathesis. Chem Sci 2024; 15:9709-9718. [PMID: 38939135 PMCID: PMC11206237 DOI: 10.1039/d4sc00322e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Metathesis reactions are widely used in synthetic chemistry. While state-of-the-art organic metathesis involves highly controlled processes where specific bonds are broken and formed, inorganic metathesis reactions are often extremely exothermic and, consequently, poorly controlled. Ternary nitrides offer a technologically relevant platform for expanding synthetic control of inorganic metathesis reactions. Here, we show that energy-controlled metathesis reactions involving a heterovalent exchange are possible in inorganic nitrides. We synthesized Zn3WN4 by swapping Zn2+ and Li+ between Li6WN4 and ZnX2 (X = Br, Cl, F) precursors. The in situ synchrotron powder X-ray diffraction and differential scanning calorimetry show that the reaction onset is correlated with the ZnX2 melting point and that product purity is inversely correlated with the reaction's exothermicity. Therefore, careful choice of the halide counterion (i.e., ZnBr2) allows the synthesis to proceed in a swift but controlled manner at a surprisingly low temperature for an inorganic nitride (300 °C). High resolution synchrotron powder X-ray diffraction and diffuse reflectance spectroscopy confirm the synthesis of a cation-ordered Zn3WN4 semiconducting material. We hypothesize that this synthesis strategy is generalizable because many Li-M-N phases are known (where M is a metal) and could therefore serve as precursors for metathesis reactions targeting new ternary nitrides. This work expands the synthetic control of inorganic metathesis reactions in a way that will accelerate the discovery of novel functional ternary nitrides and other currently inaccessible materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher L Rom
- Materials, Chemical, and Computational Science, National Renewable Energy Laboratory Golden CO 80401 USA
| | - Shaun O'Donnell
- Materials, Chemical, and Computational Science, National Renewable Energy Laboratory Golden CO 80401 USA
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University Fort Collins CO 80523 USA
| | - Kayla Huang
- Materials, Chemical, and Computational Science, National Renewable Energy Laboratory Golden CO 80401 USA
- University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Champaign IL 61801 USA
| | - Ryan A Klein
- Materials, Chemical, and Computational Science, National Renewable Energy Laboratory Golden CO 80401 USA
- Center for Neutron Research, National Institute of Standards and Technology Gaithersburg MD 20899 USA
| | - Morgan J Kramer
- Center for Neutron Research, National Institute of Standards and Technology Gaithersburg MD 20899 USA
- Department of Chemistry, Southern Methodist University Dallas TX 75275 USA
| | - Rebecca W Smaha
- Materials, Chemical, and Computational Science, National Renewable Energy Laboratory Golden CO 80401 USA
| | - Andriy Zakutayev
- Materials, Chemical, and Computational Science, National Renewable Energy Laboratory Golden CO 80401 USA
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Dahiya P, Mandal TK. Simple to Quadruple Perovskite Transformation by Coordination Switching upon Solid-State Ion Exchange of NaNbO 3. Inorg Chem 2024; 63:6111-6115. [PMID: 38522083 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.4c00577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/26/2024]
Abstract
Topotactic ion exchange is ubiquitous in the preparation of many metastable solids with layered structures. In recent times, the scope of chimie-douce ion exchange has been extended to quasi-2D and -3D structures including nanocrystals. The low-temperature solid-state exchange is yet another unique synthetic tool to access preconceived structures for the rational design of solids. Although rational synthesis using inorganic synthons is rare, few examples exist among inorganic solids with layered structures. Herein, we extend the scope further by transforming a simple perovskite (ABO3) into a high-pressure quadruple (AA'3B4O12) perovskite. The transformation is achieved at moderate temperatures and ambient pressure via a solid-state metathesis reaction, wherein the transition metal adopts a new A-cation coordination upon exchange. Such coordination switching upon ion exchange will open up possibilities for functionality-driven structural transformations and the rational design of new solids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Preeti Dahiya
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee 247667, India
| | - Tapas Kumar Mandal
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee 247667, India
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3
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Rom CL, Novick A, McDermott MJ, Yakovenko AA, Gallawa JR, Tran GT, Asebiah DC, Storck EN, McBride BC, Miller RC, Prieto AL, Persson KA, Toberer E, Stevanović V, Zakutayev A, Neilson JR. Mechanistically Guided Materials Chemistry: Synthesis of Ternary Nitrides, CaZrN 2 and CaHfN 2. J Am Chem Soc 2024; 146:4001-4012. [PMID: 38291812 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c12114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2024]
Abstract
Recent computational studies have predicted many new ternary nitrides, revealing synthetic opportunities in this underexplored phase space. However, synthesizing new ternary nitrides is difficult, in part because intermediate and product phases often have high cohesive energies that inhibit diffusion. Here, we report the synthesis of two new phases, calcium zirconium nitride (CaZrN2) and calcium hafnium nitride (CaHfN2), by solid state metathesis reactions between Ca3N2 and MCl4 (M = Zr, Hf). Although the reaction nominally proceeds to the target phases in a 1:1 ratio of the precursors via Ca3N2 + MCl4 → CaMN2 + 2 CaCl2, reactions prepared this way result in Ca-poor materials (CaxM2-xN2, x < 1). A small excess of Ca3N2 (ca. 20 mol %) is needed to yield stoichiometric CaMN2, as confirmed by high-resolution synchrotron powder X-ray diffraction. In situ synchrotron X-ray diffraction studies reveal that nominally stoichiometric reactions produce Zr3+ intermediates early in the reaction pathway, and the excess Ca3N2 is needed to reoxidize Zr3+ intermediates back to the Zr4+ oxidation state of CaZrN2. Analysis of computationally derived chemical potential diagrams rationalizes this synthetic approach and its contrast from the synthesis of MgZrN2. These findings additionally highlight the utility of in situ diffraction studies and computational thermochemistry to provide mechanistic guidance for synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher L Rom
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1872, United States
- Materials Science Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Andrew Novick
- Department of Physics, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Matthew J McDermott
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Andrey A Yakovenko
- X-ray Science Division, Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Jessica R Gallawa
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1872, United States
| | - Gia Thinh Tran
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1872, United States
| | - Dominic C Asebiah
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1872, United States
| | - Emily N Storck
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1872, United States
| | - Brennan C McBride
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1872, United States
| | - Rebecca C Miller
- Analytical Resources Core, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1872, United States
| | - Amy L Prieto
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1872, United States
| | - Kristin A Persson
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Eric Toberer
- Department of Physics, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Vladan Stevanović
- Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Andriy Zakutayev
- Materials Science Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - James R Neilson
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1872, United States
- School of Advanced Materials Discovery, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, United States
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Alameda LT, Baumler KJ, Katzbaer RR, Schaak RE. Soft Chemistry of Hard Materials: Low-Temperature Pathways to Bulk and Nanostructured Layered Metal Borides. Acc Chem Res 2023; 56:3515-3524. [PMID: 37992288 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.3c00579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2023]
Abstract
Conspectus"Synthesis by design" is often considered to be the primary goal of chemists who make molecules and materials. Synthetic chemists usually have in mind a target they want to make, and they want to be able to design a pathway that can get them to that target as quickly and efficiently as possible. Chemists who synthesize refractory solids, which have melting points above 1000 °C and are often chemically inert at these high temperatures, have access to only a small number of synthetic strategies due to the need to overcome solid-state diffusion, which is the rate-limiting step in such reactions. The use of extremely high temperatures to facilitate diffusion among two or more refractory solids, which precedes any chemical reaction that must occur, generally drives the system to form only the product that is the most thermodynamically stable-the global minimum on an energy landscape-for a certain combination of elements. When trying to target a different product in the same system, one generally cannot rely on thermally driven reactions. Lower-temperature reactions that side step this diffusion limitation can succeed where high temperatures fail by providing access to local minima on an energy landscape. These local minima represent metastable phases that are primed for synthesis, but only if an appropriate pathway and set of reactions can be identified. It is therefore important to develop and understand low-temperature, or "soft", chemical reactions in "hard" refractory systems. These reactions allow us to apply the retrosynthetic framework that molecular chemists rely on to systems where chemists have not previously had such control over reactions, reactivities, and metastable product formation.In this Account, we discuss the development of soft chemical reactions of hard materials in the context of a class of layered, refractory metal borides that are precursors to an emerging family of two-dimensional nanomaterials. Layered ternary metal boride phases such as MoAlB have layers of metal borides, which are chemically unreactive, interleaved with layers of aluminum, which are reactive. Some of the interlayer aluminum can be deintercalated at room temperature in dilute aqueous sodium hydroxide, transforming stable MoAlB into destabilized MoAl1-xB. Mild thermal treatment of submicrometer grains of this destabilized MoAl1-xB sample allows it to traverse the energy landscape and crystallize as Mo2AlB2, a metastable compound. Further thermal treatment transforms Mo2AlB2 into a Mo2AlB2-alumina nanolaminate and ultimately mesoporous MoB, all through continued traversing of the energy landscape using mild chemical and thermal treatments. Similar topochemical manipulations, which maintain structure but change composition, are emerging for other MAB phases and are opening the door to new types of metastable compounds and nanostructured materials in traditionally refractory systems.
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Hu D, Beauvais ML, Kamm GE, Mullens BG, Sanchez Monserrate BA, Vornholt SM, Chupas PJ, Chapman KW. Resolving Fast Relative Kinetics in Inorganic Solid-State Synthesis. J Am Chem Soc 2023. [PMID: 38019924 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c10916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
Solid-state syntheses are generally regarded as being slow, limited by transport, and, as such, are often only stopped to check the products after many hours at high temperature. Here, using a custom-designed reactor to rapidly initiate solid-state syntheses, we are able to capture the earliest stages of a reaction using in situ X-ray scattering. For the reaction of TiO2 and Li2CO3 to form spinel lithium titanate (Li4Ti5O12)─an anode material for fast-charging applications─we capture two distinct kinetic regimes, including fast initial kinetics in the first seconds-minutes of the reaction that account for significant product formation. We use an Avrami model to compare the reaction at high temperatures (700-750 °C), which results in the rapid formation of Li4Ti5O12 within minutes, and lower temperatures (482 °C), consistent with conditions that might be chosen based on "Tamman's rule", a common heuristic. Our analysis reveals characteristic Avrami slopes (i.e., dimensionalities) for each step in the chemical transformation. We anticipate that the fast initial reaction kinetics found here are likely to be common in the synthesis of other materials used in battery electrodes, solid-state electrolytes, ion-conductive membranes, etc. where ion transport is a prerequisite for functionality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danrui Hu
- Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794-3400, United States
| | - Michelle L Beauvais
- Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794-3400, United States
| | - Gabrielle E Kamm
- Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794-3400, United States
| | - Bryce G Mullens
- Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794-3400, United States
- School of Chemistry, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | | | - Simon M Vornholt
- Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794-3400, United States
| | - Peter J Chupas
- Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794-3400, United States
| | - Karena W Chapman
- Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794-3400, United States
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6
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Luo J, Ren G, Campbell BM, Zhang D, Cao T, Mishra R, Sadtler B. Spontaneous Seed Formation during Electrodeposition Drives Epitaxial Growth of Metastable Bismuth Selenide Microcrystals. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:18272-18285. [PMID: 36173417 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c05261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Materials with metastable phases can exhibit vastly different properties from their thermodynamically favored counterparts. Methods to synthesize metastable phases without the need for high-temperature or high-pressure conditions would facilitate their widespread use. We report on the electrochemical growth of microcrystals of bismuth selenide, Bi2Se3, in the metastable orthorhombic phase at room temperature in aqueous solution. Rather than direct epitaxy with the growth substrate, the spontaneous formation of a seed layer containing nanocrystals of cubic BiSe enforces the metastable phase. We first used single-crystal silicon substrates with a range of resistivities and different orientations to identify the conditions needed to produce the metastable phase. When the applied potential during electrochemical growth is positive of the reduction potential of Bi3+, an initial, Bi-rich seed layer forms. Electron microscopy imaging and diffraction reveal that the seed layer consists of nanocrystals of cubic BiSe embedded within an amorphous matrix of Bi and Se. Using density functional theory calculations, we show that epitaxial matching between cubic BiSe and orthorhombic Bi2Se3 can help stabilize the metastable orthorhombic phase over the thermodynamically stable rhombohedral phase. The spontaneous formation of the seed layer enables us to grow orthorhombic Bi2Se3 on a variety of substrates including single-crystal silicon with different orientations, polycrystalline fluorine-doped tin oxide, and polycrystalline gold. The ability to stabilize the metastable phase through room-temperature electrodeposition in aqueous solution without requiring a single-crystal substrate broadens the range of applications for this semiconductor in optoelectronic and electrochemical devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiang Luo
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 63130, United States
| | - Guodong Ren
- Institute of Materials Science & Engineering, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 63130, United States
| | - Brandon M Campbell
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 63130, United States
| | - Dongyan Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 63130, United States
| | - Tengfei Cao
- Department of Mechanical Engineering & Materials Science, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 63130, United States
| | - Rohan Mishra
- Institute of Materials Science & Engineering, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 63130, United States.,Department of Mechanical Engineering & Materials Science, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 63130, United States
| | - Bryce Sadtler
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 63130, United States.,Institute of Materials Science & Engineering, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 63130, United States
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7
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Abeysinghe JP, Kölln AF, Gillan EG. Rapid and Energetic Solid-State Metathesis Reactions for Iron, Cobalt, and Nickel Boride Formation and Their Investigation as Bifunctional Water Splitting Electrocatalysts. ACS MATERIALS AU 2022; 2:489-504. [PMID: 35875344 PMCID: PMC9295309 DOI: 10.1021/acsmaterialsau.1c00079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Metal borides have
long-standing uses due to their desirable chemical
and physical properties such as high melting points, hardness, electrical
conductivity, and chemical stability. Typical metal boride preparations
utilize high-energy and/or slow thermal heating processes. This report
details a facile, solvent-free single-step synthesis of several crystalline
metal monoborides containing earth-abundant transition metals. Rapid
and exothermic self-propagating solid-state metathesis (SSM) reactions
between metal halides and MgB2 form crystalline FeB, CoB,
and NiB in seconds without sustained external heating and with high
isolated product yields (∼80%). The metal borides are formed
using a well-studied MgB2 precursor and compared to reactions
using separate Mg and B reactants, which also produce self-propagating
reactions and form crystalline metal borides. These SSM reactions
are sufficiently exothermic to theoretically raise reaction temperatures
to the boiling point of the MgCl2 byproduct (1412 °C).
The chemically robust monoborides were examined for their ability
to perform electrocatalytic water oxidation and reduction. Crystalline
CoB and NiB embedded on carbon wax electrodes exhibit moderate and
stable bifunctional electrocatalytic water splitting activity, while
FeB only shows appreciable hydrogen evolution activity. Analysis of
catalyst particles after extended electrocatalytic experiments shows
that the bulk crystalline metal borides remain intact during electrochemical
water-splitting reactions though surface oxygen species may impact
electrocatalytic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janaka P Abeysinghe
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Anna F Kölln
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Edward G Gillan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
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8
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Kamm GE, Huang G, Vornholt SM, McAuliffe RD, Veith GM, Thornton KS, Chapman KW. Relative Kinetics of Solid-State Reactions: The Role of Architecture in Controlling Reactivity. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:11975-11979. [PMID: 35763716 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c05043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Countless inorganic materials are prepared via high temperature solid-state reaction of mixtures of reagents powders. Understanding and controlling the phenomena that limit these solid-state reactions is crucial to designing reactions for new materials synthesis. Here, focusing on topotactic ion-exchange between NaFeO2 and LiBr as a model reaction, we manipulate the mesoscale reaction architecture and transport pathways by changing the packing and interfacial contact between reagent particles. Through analysis of in situ synchrotron X-ray diffraction data, we identify multiple kinetic regimes that reflect transport limitations on different length scales: a fast kinetic regime in the first minutes of the reaction and a slow kinetic regime that follows. The fast kinetic regime dominates the observed reaction progress and depends on the reagent packing; this challenges the view that solid-state reactions are necessarily slow. Using a phase-field model, we simulated the reaction process and showed that particles without direct contact to the other reactant phases experience large reduction in the reaction rate, even when transport hindrance at particle-particle contacts is not considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabrielle E Kamm
- Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
| | - Guanglong Huang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Simon M Vornholt
- Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
| | - Rebecca D McAuliffe
- Chemical Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Gabriel M Veith
- Chemical Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Katsuyo S Thornton
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Karena W Chapman
- Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
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9
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Liang L, Niu L, Wu T, Zhou D, Xiao Z. Fluorine-Free Fabrication of MXene via Photo-Fenton Approach for Advanced Lithium-Sulfur Batteries. ACS NANO 2022; 16:7971-7981. [PMID: 35466669 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.2c00779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The mainstream synthesis method for MXene is using aqueous fluorine-containing acidic solutions to eliminate the A-element layers from their MAX phases. However, this strategy is environmentally hazardous and impairs the material performance (e.g., supercapacitor and Li-S batteries) owing to the presence of -F terminations. Herein, we exploit a low-temperature "soft chemistry" approach based on photo-Fenton (P.F.) reaction for the fabrication of F-free Ti3C2 (Ff-Ti3C2) with high purity of 95%. It is confirmed that the continuous generation of highly reactive oxygen species (HO• and O2•- radicals) during the P.F. reaction weakens the metallic Ti-Al bonds in the MAX phase and promotes the formation of high concentration OH- anions, which are conducive to the sequential topochemical deintercalation of Al layers. Moreover, the strengthened charge accumulation on the Ff-Ti3C2 surface creates rich electron "reservoirs" for actuating the Li-S chemistry, which not only strengthens the host-guest interactions but also propels the kinetics of the polysulfide conversion. Taking advantage of the superior mechanical robustness, better electrolyte wettability, and improved electrocatalytic activity, the resultant Ff-Ti3C2 can be used as an ideal sulfur host and Li-S chemistry mediator for advanced flexible Li-S batteries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Liang
- Henan Key Laboratory of Photovoltaic Materials, Henan University, Kaifeng 475004, People's Republic of China
| | - Liqun Niu
- Henan Key Laboratory of Photovoltaic Materials, Henan University, Kaifeng 475004, People's Republic of China
| | - Tianli Wu
- Henan Key Laboratory of Photovoltaic Materials, Henan University, Kaifeng 475004, People's Republic of China
| | - Dan Zhou
- Henan Key Laboratory of Photovoltaic Materials, Henan University, Kaifeng 475004, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhubing Xiao
- Henan Key Laboratory of Photovoltaic Materials, Henan University, Kaifeng 475004, People's Republic of China
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10
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Ito H, Shitara K, Wang Y, Fujii K, Yashima M, Goto Y, Moriyoshi C, Rosero‐Navarro NC, Miura A, Tadanaga K. Kinetically Stabilized Cation Arrangement in Li 3 YCl 6 Superionic Conductor during Solid-State Reaction. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2021; 8:e2101413. [PMID: 34138514 PMCID: PMC8336504 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202101413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
The main approach for exploring metastable materials is via trial-and-error synthesis, and there is limited understanding of how metastable materials are kinetically stabilized. In this study, a metastable phase superionic conductor, β-Li3 YCl6 , is discovered through in situ X-ray diffraction after heating a mixture of LiCl and YCl3 powders. While Cl- arrangement is represented as a hexagonal close packed structure in both metastable β-Li3 YCl6 synthesized below 600 K and stable α-Li3 YCl6 above 600 K, the arrangement of Li+ and Y3+ in β-Li3 YCl6 determined by neutron diffraction brought about the cell with a 1/√3 a-axis and a similar c-axis of stable α-Li3 YCl6 . Higher Li+ ion conductivity and lower activation energy for Li+ transport are observed in comparison with α-Li3 YCl6 . The computationally calculated low migration barrier of Li+ supports the low activation energy for Li+ conduction, and the calculated high migration barrier of Y3+ kinetically stabilizes this metastable phase by impeding phase transformation to α-Li3 YCl6 . This work shows that the combination of in situ observation of solid-state reactions and computation of the migration energy can facilitate the comprehension of the solid-state reactions allowing kinetic stabilization of metastable materials, and can enable the discovery of new metastable materials in a short time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroaki Ito
- Graduate School of Chemical Science and EngineeringHokkaido UniversityKita 13, Nishi 8SapporoHokkaido060‐8628Japan
| | - Kazuki Shitara
- Joint and Welding Research InstituteOsaka University11‐1 MihogaokaIbarakiOsaka567‐0047Japan
- Nanostructures Research LaboratoryJapan Fine Ceramics Center2‐4‐1, Mutsuno, Atsuta, NagoyaAichi456‐8587Japan
| | - Yongming Wang
- Creative Research Institution Hokkaido UniversityKita 21, Nishi 10SapporoHokkaido001‐0021Japan
| | - Kotaro Fujii
- Department of Chemistry, School of ScienceTokyo Institute of Technology2‐12‐1 W4‐17 O‐okayama, MeguroTokyo152‐8551Japan
| | - Masatomo Yashima
- Department of Chemistry, School of ScienceTokyo Institute of Technology2‐12‐1 W4‐17 O‐okayama, MeguroTokyo152‐8551Japan
| | - Yosuke Goto
- Department of PhysicsTokyo Metropolitan University1‐1 Minami‐OsawaHachiojiTokyo192‐0397Japan
| | - Chikako Moriyoshi
- Graduate School of Advanced Science and EngineeringHiroshima University1‐3‐1 KagamiyamaHigashihiroshimaHiroshima739‐8526Japan
| | | | - Akira Miura
- Faculty of EngineeringHokkaido UniversityKita 13, Nishi 8SapporoHokkaido060‐8628Japan
| | - Kiyoharu Tadanaga
- Faculty of EngineeringHokkaido UniversityKita 13, Nishi 8SapporoHokkaido060‐8628Japan
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11
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Miura A, Bartel CJ, Goto Y, Mizuguchi Y, Moriyoshi C, Kuroiwa Y, Wang Y, Yaguchi T, Shirai M, Nagao M, Rosero-Navarro NC, Tadanaga K, Ceder G, Sun W. Observing and Modeling the Sequential Pairwise Reactions that Drive Solid-State Ceramic Synthesis. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2021; 33:e2100312. [PMID: 33949743 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202100312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Revised: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Solid-state synthesis from powder precursors is the primary processing route to advanced multicomponent ceramic materials. Designing reaction conditions and precursors for ceramic synthesis can be a laborious, trial-and-error process, as heterogeneous mixtures of precursors often evolve through a complicated series of reaction intermediates. Here, ab initio thermodynamics is used to model which pair of precursors has the most reactive interface, enabling the understanding and anticipation of which non-equilibrium intermediates form in the early stages of a solid-state reaction. In situ X-ray diffraction and in situ electron microscopy are then used to observe how these initial intermediates influence phase evolution in the synthesis of the classic high-temperature superconductor YBa2 Cu3 O6+ x (YBCO). The model developed herein rationalizes how the replacement of the traditional BaCO3 precursor with BaO2 redirects phase evolution through a low-temperature eutectic melt, facilitating the formation of YBCO in 30 min instead of 12+ h. Precursor selection plays an important role in tuning the thermodynamics of interfacial reactions and emerges as an important design parameter in planning kinetically favorable synthesis pathways to complex ceramic materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akira Miura
- Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-8628, Japan
| | - Christopher J Bartel
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, UC Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Yosuke Goto
- Department of Physics, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Hachioji, 192-0397, Japan
| | - Yoshikazu Mizuguchi
- Department of Physics, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Hachioji, 192-0397, Japan
| | - Chikako Moriyoshi
- Graduate School of Advanced Science and Engineering, Hiroshima University, 1-3-1 Kagamiyama, Higashihiroshima, 739-8526, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Kuroiwa
- Graduate School of Advanced Science and Engineering, Hiroshima University, 1-3-1 Kagamiyama, Higashihiroshima, 739-8526, Japan
| | - Yongming Wang
- Creative Research Institution Hokkaido University, Kita 21, Nishi 10, Sapporo, 001-0021, Japan
| | - Toshie Yaguchi
- Hitachi High-Tech Corporation, Ichige 882, Hitachinaka, 312-8504, Japan
| | - Manabu Shirai
- Hitachi High-Tech Corporation, Ichige 882, Hitachinaka, 312-8504, Japan
| | - Masanori Nagao
- Center for Crystal Science and Technology, University of Yamanashi, Kofu, 400-0021, Japan
| | | | - Kiyoharu Tadanaga
- Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-8628, Japan
| | - Gerbrand Ceder
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, UC Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Wenhao Sun
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
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12
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Fiss BG, Richard AJ, Douglas G, Kojic M, Friščić T, Moores A. Mechanochemical methods for the transfer of electrons and exchange of ions: inorganic reactivity from nanoparticles to organometallics. Chem Soc Rev 2021; 50:8279-8318. [DOI: 10.1039/d0cs00918k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
For inorganic metathesis and reduction reactivity, mechanochemistry is demonstrating great promise towards both nanoparticles and organometallics syntheses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blaine G. Fiss
- Centre in Green Chemistry and Catalysis
- Department of Chemistry
- McGill University
- Montréal
- Canada
| | - Austin J. Richard
- Centre in Green Chemistry and Catalysis
- Department of Chemistry
- McGill University
- Montréal
- Canada
| | - Georgia Douglas
- Centre in Green Chemistry and Catalysis
- Department of Chemistry
- McGill University
- Montréal
- Canada
| | - Monika Kojic
- Centre in Green Chemistry and Catalysis
- Department of Chemistry
- McGill University
- Montréal
- Canada
| | - Tomislav Friščić
- Centre in Green Chemistry and Catalysis
- Department of Chemistry
- McGill University
- Montréal
- Canada
| | - Audrey Moores
- Centre in Green Chemistry and Catalysis
- Department of Chemistry
- McGill University
- Montréal
- Canada
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13
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McClain R, Malliakas CD, Shen J, He J, Wolverton C, González GB, Kanatzidis MG. Mechanistic insight of KBiQ 2 (Q = S, Se) using panoramic synthesis towards synthesis-by-design. Chem Sci 2020; 12:1378-1391. [PMID: 34163901 PMCID: PMC8179147 DOI: 10.1039/d0sc04562d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Solid-state synthesis has historically focused on reactants and end products; however, knowledge of reaction pathways, intermediate phases and their formation may provide mechanistic insight of solid-state reactions. With an increased understanding of reaction progressions, design principles can be deduced, affording more predictive power in materials synthesis. In pursuit of this goal, in situ powder X-ray diffraction is employed to observe crystalline phase evolution over the course of the reaction, thereby constructing a “panoramic” view of the reaction from beginning to end. We conducted in situ diffraction studies in the K–Bi–Q (Q = S, Se) system to understand the formation of phases occurring in this system in the course of their reactions. Powder mixtures of K2Q to Bi2Q3 in 1 : 1 and 1.5 : 1 ratios were heated to 800 °C or 650 °C, while simultaneously collecting diffraction data. Three new phases, K3BiS3, β-KBiS2, and β-KBiSe2, were discovered. Panoramic synthesis showed that K3BiQ3 serves an important mechanistic role as a structural intermediate in both chalcogen systems (Q = S, Se) in the path to form the KBiQ2 structure. Thermal analysis and calculations at the density functional theory (DFT) level show that the cation-ordered β-KBiQ2 polymorphs are the thermodynamically stable phase in this compositional space, while Pair Distribution Function (PDF) analysis shows that all α-KBiQ2 structures have local disorder due to stereochemically active lone pair expression of the bismuth atoms. The formation of the β-KBiQ2 structures, both of which crystallize in the α-NaFeO2 structure type, show a boundary where the structure can be disordered or ordered with regards to the alkali metal and bismuth. A cation radius tolerance for six-coordinate cation site sharing of ∼ 1.3 is proposed. The mechanistic insight the panoramic synthesis technique provides in the K–Bi–Q system is progress towards the overarching goal of synthesis-by-design. This work uses in situ powder X-ray diffraction studies to observe crystalline phase evolution over the course of multiple K-Bi-Q (Q = S, Se) reactions, thereby constructing a “panoramic” view of each reaction from beginning to end.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca McClain
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University Evanston Illinois 60208 USA
| | | | - Jiahong Shen
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University Evanston Illinois 60208 USA
| | - Jiangang He
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University Evanston Illinois 60208 USA
| | - Chris Wolverton
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University Evanston Illinois 60208 USA
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14
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Saothayanun TK, Sirinakorn TT, Ogawa M. Ion Exchange of Layered Alkali Titanates (Na 2Ti 3O 7, K 2Ti 4O 9, and Cs 2Ti 5O 11) with Alkali Halides by the Solid-State Reactions at Room Temperature. Inorg Chem 2020; 59:4024-4029. [PMID: 32105454 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.9b03695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Ion exchange of layered alkali titanates (Na2Ti3O7, K2Ti4O9, and Cs2Ti5O11) with several alkali metal halides surprisingly proceeded in the solid-state at room temperature. The reaction was governed by thermodynamic parameters and was completed within a shorter time when the titanates with a smaller particle size were employed. On the other hand, the required time for the ion exchange was shorter in the cases of Cs2Ti5O11 than those of K2Ti4O9 irrespective of the particle size of the titanates, suggesting faster diffusion of the interlayer cation in the titanate with lower layer charge density.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taya Ko Saothayanun
- School of Energy Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), 555 Moo 1 Payupnai, Wangchan, Rayong 21210, Thailand
| | - Thipwipa Tip Sirinakorn
- School of Molecular Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), 555 Moo 1 Payupnai, Wangchan, Rayong 21210, Thailand
| | - Makoto Ogawa
- School of Energy Science and Engineering, Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), 555 Moo 1 Payupnai, Wangchan, Rayong 21210, Thailand
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15
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Todd PK, Martinolich AJ, Neilson JR. Catalytic behavior of hexaphenyldisiloxane in the synthesis of pyrite FeS 2. Chem Commun (Camb) 2020; 56:9186-9189. [DOI: 10.1039/d0cc03397a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Hexaphenyldisiloxane acts catalytically to yield FeS2 in metathesis reactions at low temperatures (150 °C) compared to reactions with no molecule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul K. Todd
- Colorado State University
- Department of Chemistry
- Fort Collins
- USA
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16
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Todd PK, Smith AMM, Neilson JR. Yttrium Manganese Oxide Phase Stability and Selectivity Using Lithium Carbonate Assisted Metathesis Reactions. Inorg Chem 2019; 58:15166-15174. [PMID: 31682435 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.9b02075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In solid-state chemistry, stable phases are often missed if their synthesis is impractical, such as when decomposition or a polymorphic transition occurs at relatively low temperature. In the preparation of complex oxides, reaction temperatures commonly exceed 1000 °C with little to no control of the reaction pathway. Thus, a prerequisite for exploring the synthesis of complex oxides is to identify reactions with intermediates that are kinetically competent at low temperatures, as provided by assisted metathesis reactions. Here, we study the assisted metathesis reaction Mn2O3 + 2.2YCl3·6H2O + 3Li2CO3 → 2YMnO3 + 5.8LiCl + 0.2LiYCl4 + 3CO2 using in situ synchrotron X-ray diffraction. By changing the atmosphere, oxygen vs inert gas, the reaction product changes from the overoxidized perovskite YMnO3+δ to the hexagonal YMnO3 polymorph at the reaction temperature of 850 °C, respectively. Analysis of the reaction pathways reveals two parallel reaction pathways in forming YMnO3 phases: (1) the slow reaction of metal oxides in a LiCl flux (Y2O3 + Mn2O3 [Formula: see text] 2YMnO3) and (2) the fast reaction from ternary intermediates (YOCl + LiMnO2 → LiCl + YMnO3). Control reactions reveal that both proposed pathways in isolation result in product formation, but the direct preparation of ternary intermediates (YOCl + LiMnO2 → LiCl + YMnO3) occurs at lower temperatures (500 °C) and shorter times (<24 h) and forms nominally stoichiometric orthorhombic YMnO3. These ternary intermediates react at a faster rate than the slow stepwise oxygenation of yttrium chloride to Y2O3 (YCl3 → YOCl → Y3O4Cl → Y2O3), which is relatively inert. These results support a kinetically controlled reaction pathway to form YMnO3 phases in assisted metathesis reactions with phase selectivity achievable through changes to reaction atmosphere.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul K Todd
- Colorado State University , Department of Chemistry , Fort Collins , Colorado 80523-1872 , United States
| | - Antoinette M M Smith
- Colorado State University , Department of Chemistry , Fort Collins , Colorado 80523-1872 , United States
| | - James R Neilson
- Colorado State University , Department of Chemistry , Fort Collins , Colorado 80523-1872 , United States
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17
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Lee JM, Miller RC, Moloney LJ, Prieto AL. The development of strategies for nanoparticle synthesis: Considerations for deepening understanding of inherently complex systems. J SOLID STATE CHEM 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jssc.2018.12.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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18
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Todd PK, Neilson JR. Selective Formation of Yttrium Manganese Oxides through Kinetically Competent Assisted Metathesis Reactions. J Am Chem Soc 2019; 141:1191-1195. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.8b10123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Paul K. Todd
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1872, United States
| | - James R. Neilson
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1872, United States
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19
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Combined computational and experimental investigation of the La 2CuO 4-x S x (0 ≤ x ≤ 4) quaternary system. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:7890-7895. [PMID: 30018065 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1800284115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The lack of a mechanistic framework for chemical reactions forming inorganic extended solids presents a challenge to accelerated materials discovery. We demonstrate here a combined computational and experimental methodology to tackle this problem, in which in situ X-ray diffraction measurements monitor solid-state reactions and deduce reaction pathways, while theoretical computations rationalize reaction energetics. The method has been applied to the La2CuO4-x S x (0 ≤ x ≤ 4) quaternary system, following an earlier prediction that enhanced superconductivity could be found in these new lanthanum copper(II) oxysulfide compounds. In situ diffraction measurements show that reactants containing Cu(II) and S(2-) ions undergo redox reactions, leaving their ions in oxidation states that are incompatible with forming the desired new compounds. Computations of the reaction energies confirm that the observed synthetic pathways are indeed favored over those that would hypothetically form the suggested compounds. The consistency between computation and experiment in the La2CuO4-x S x system suggests a role for predictive theory: to identify and to explicate new synthetic routes for forming predicted compounds.
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20
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Alameda LT, Moradifar P, Metzger ZP, Alem N, Schaak RE. Topochemical Deintercalation of Al from MoAlB: Stepwise Etching Pathway, Layered Intergrowth Structures, and Two-Dimensional MBene. J Am Chem Soc 2018; 140:8833-8840. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.8b04705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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21
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Marisa ME, Zhou S, Melot BC, Peaslee GF, Neilson JR. Paracrystalline Disorder from Phosphate Ion Orientation and Substitution in Synthetic Bone Mineral. Inorg Chem 2016; 55:12290-12298. [PMID: 27934442 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.6b02025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mary E. Marisa
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort
Collins, Colorado 80523-1872, United States
| | - Shiliang Zhou
- Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089-0105, United States
| | - Brent C. Melot
- Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089-0105, United States
| | - Graham F. Peaslee
- Department
of Chemistry, Hope College, Holland, Michigan 49423-3605, United States
| | - James R. Neilson
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort
Collins, Colorado 80523-1872, United States
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22
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Sun W, Dacek ST, Ong SP, Hautier G, Jain A, Richards WD, Gamst AC, Persson KA, Ceder G. The thermodynamic scale of inorganic crystalline metastability. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2016; 2:e1600225. [PMID: 28138514 PMCID: PMC5262468 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1600225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 241] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2015] [Accepted: 10/20/2016] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The space of metastable materials offers promising new design opportunities for next-generation technological materials, such as complex oxides, semiconductors, pharmaceuticals, steels, and beyond. Although metastable phases are ubiquitous in both nature and technology, only a heuristic understanding of their underlying thermodynamics exists. We report a large-scale data-mining study of the Materials Project, a high-throughput database of density functional theory-calculated energetics of Inorganic Crystal Structure Database structures, to explicitly quantify the thermodynamic scale of metastability for 29,902 observed inorganic crystalline phases. We reveal the influence of chemistry and composition on the accessible thermodynamic range of crystalline metastability for polymorphic and phase-separating compounds, yielding new physical insights that can guide the design of novel metastable materials. We further assert that not all low-energy metastable compounds can necessarily be synthesized, and propose a principle of 'remnant metastability'-that observable metastable crystalline phases are generally remnants of thermodynamic conditions where they were once the lowest free-energy phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenhao Sun
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Stephen T. Dacek
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Shyue Ping Ong
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Geoffroy Hautier
- Institute of Condensed Matter and Nanosciences, Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve 1348, Belgium
| | - Anubhav Jain
- Energy Technologies Area, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - William D. Richards
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Anthony C. Gamst
- Computational and Applied Statistics Laboratory, Department of Mathematics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Kristin A. Persson
- Energy Technologies Area, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Gerbrand Ceder
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Corresponding author.
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