Misfolding of a Human Islet Amyloid Polypeptide at the Lipid Membrane Populates through β-Sheet Conformers without Involving α-Helical Intermediates

Dynamic protein hydration water mediates the aggregation kinetics of amyloid β peptides at interfaces

Protein hydration water is essential for protein misfolding and amyloid formation, but how it directs the course of amyloid formation has yet to be elucidated. Here, we experimentally demonstrated that femtosecond sum frequency generation vibrational spectroscopy (SFG-VS) and the femtosecond IR pump-SFG probe technique can serve as powerful tools for addressing this issue. Using amyloid β(1-42) peptide as a model, we determined the transient misfolding intermediates by probing the amide band spectral features and the local hydration water changes by measuring the ultrafast vibrational dynamics of the amide I band. For the first time, we established a correlation between the dynamic change in protein hydration water and aggregation propensity. The aggregation propensity depends on the dynamic change in the hydration water, rather than the static hydration water content of the initial protein state. Water expulsion enhances the aggregation propensity and promotes amyloid formation, while protein hydration attenuates the aggregation propensity and inhibits amyloid formation. The suppression of water expulsion and protein hydration can prevent protein aggregation and stabilize proteins. These findings contribute to a better understanding of the underlying effect of hydration water on amyloid formation and protein structural stability and provide a strategy for maintaining long-term stabilization of biomolecules.

A bifunctional lactoferrin-derived amyloid coating prevents bacterial adhesion and occludes dentinal tubules via deep remineralization

Dentin hypersensitivity (DH) manifests as sharp and uncomfortable pain due to the exposure of dentinal tubules (DTs) following the erosion of tooth enamel. Desensitizing agents commonly used in clinical practice have limitations such as limited depth of penetration, slow remineralization and no antimicrobial properties. To alleviate these challenges, our study designed a lactoferrin-derived amyloid nanofilm (PTLF nanofilm) inspired by the saliva-acquired membrane (SAP). The nanofilm utilises Tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine (TCEP) to disrupt the disulfide bonds of lactoferrin (LF) under physiological conditions. The PTLF nanofilm modifies surfaces across various substrates and effectively prevents the early and stable adhesion of cariogenic bacteria, such as Streptococcus mutans and Lactobacillus acidophilus. Simultaneously, it adheres rapidly and securely to demineralized dentin surfaces, facilitating in-situ remineralization of HAP through a simple immersion process. This leads to the formation of a remineralized layer resembling natural dentin, with an occlusion depth of dentinal tubules exceeding 80 µm after three days. The in vivo and vitro results confirm that the PTLF nanofilm possesses good biocompatibility and its ability to exert simultaneous antimicrobial effects and dentin remineralization. Accordingly, this innovative bifunctional PTLF amyloid coating offers promising prospects for the management of DH-related conditions. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE.

Converting the Amyloidogenic Islet Amyloid Polypeptide into a Potent Nonaggregating Peptide Ligand by Side Chain-to-Side Chain Macrocyclization

The islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP), also known as amylin, is a hormone playing key physiological roles. However, its aggregation and deposition in the pancreatic islets are associated with type 2 diabetes. While this peptide adopts mainly a random coil structure in solution, its secondary conformational conversion into α-helix represents a critical step for receptor activation and contributes to amyloid formation and associated cytotoxicity. Considering the large conformational landscape and high amyloidogenicity of the peptide, as well as the complexity of the self-assembly process, it is challenging to delineate the delicate interplay between helical folding, peptide aggregation, and receptor activation. In the present study, we probed the roles of helical folding on the function-toxicity duality of IAPP by restricting its conformational ensemble through side chain-to-side chain stapling via azide-alkyne cycloaddition. Intramolecular macrocyclization (i; i + 4) constrained IAPP into α-helix and inhibited its aggregation into amyloid fibrils. These helical derivatives slowed down the self-assembly of unmodified IAPP. Site-specific macrocyclization modulated the capacity of IAPP to perturb lipid bilayers and cell plasma membrane and reduced, or even fully inhibited, the cytotoxicity associated with aggregation. Furthermore, the α-helical IAPP analogs showed moderate to high potency toward cognate G protein-coupled receptors. Overall, these results indicate that macrocyclization represents a promising strategy to protect an amyloidogenic peptide hormone from aggregation and associated toxicity, while maintaining high receptor activity.

Light on the interactions between nanoparticles and lipid membranes by interface-sensitive vibrational spectroscopy

Nanoparticles are produced in natural phenomena or synthesized artificially for technological applications. Their frequent contact with humans has been judged potentially harmful for health, and numerous studies are ongoing to understand the mechanisms of the toxicity of nanoparticles. At the macroscopic level, the toxicity can be established in vitro or in vivo by measuring the survival of cells. At the sub-microscopic level, scientists want to unveil the molecular mechanisms of the first interactions of nanoparticles with cells via the cell membrane, before the toxicity cascades within the whole cell. Unveiling a molecular understanding of the nanoparticle-membrane interface is a tricky challenge, because of the chemical complexity of this system and its nanosized dimensions buried within bulk macroscopic environments. In this review, we highlight how, in the last 10 years, second-order nonlinear optical (NLO) spectroscopy, and specifically vibrational sum frequency generation (SFG), has provided a new understanding of the structural, physicochemical, and dynamic properties of these biological interfaces, with molecular sensitivity. We will show how the intrinsic interfacial sensitivity of second-order NLO and the chemical information of vibrational SFG spectroscopy have revealed new knowledge of the molecular mechanisms that drive nanoparticles to interact with cell membranes, from both sides, the nanoparticles and the membrane properties.

Close Packing in Trans Conformers Promotes the Formation of Supramolecular Structures with C1 Symmetry

Assemblies with C1 symmetry exhibit important applications in many fields such as enantioselective catalysis. However, their formation is challenging due to their large entropic disadvantage, and molecular information on their formation dynamics is limited because of the lack of effective characterization techniques. Here, using achiral amphiphilic molecules such as N-oleoyl ethanolamide (OEA) and its analogues as modeling assembly units, we demonstrated that the sss polarization signals, generated by femtosecond sum frequency generation vibrational spectroscopy (SFG-VS), provide a powerful tool to monitor the formation dynamics of the C1 symmetric supramolecular structures at the interfaces. The trans conformation of the assembly units can provide strong π-π interactions and thus produce enough enthalpy to drive the formation of C1 symmetric supramolecular structures. However, the cis conformation impedes the assembly of C1 symmetric structures and cannot generate sss and chiral polarization SFG signals. These findings may aid in rationally constructing ordered and functional superstructures and understanding the mechanism of chirality formation.

Disulfide-Driven Charge and Hydrophobicity Rearrangement of Remodeled Membrane Proteins toward Amyloid-Type Aggregation

As a common pathological hallmark, protein aggregation into amyloids is a highly complicated phenomenon, attracting extensive research interest for elucidating its structural details and formation mechanisms. Membrane deposition and disulfide-driven protein misfolding play critical roles in amyloid-type aggregation, yet the underlying molecular process remains unclear. Here, we employed sum frequency generation (SFG) vibrational spectroscopy to comprehensively investigate the remodeling process of lysozyme, as the model protein, into amyloid-type aggregates at the cell membrane interface. It was discovered that disulfide reduction concurrently induced the transition of membrane-bound lysozyme from predominantly α-helical to antiparallel β-sheet structures, under a mode switch of membrane interaction from electrostatic to hydrophobic, and subsequent oligomeric aggregation. These findings shed light on the systematic understanding of dynamic molecular mechanisms underlying membrane-interactive amyloid oligomer formation.

Fermi Resonance of the N-D Stretching Mode Probing the Local Hydrogen-Bonding Environment in Proteins

Local H-bonding interactions are crucial for proteins to undergo various structural transitions and form different secondary structures. However, identifying slight distinctions in the local H-bonding of proteins is rather challenging. Here, we demonstrate that the Fermi resonance of the N-D stretching mode can provide an effective probe for the localized H-bonding environment of proteins both at the surface/interface and in the bulk. Using sum frequency generation vibrational spectroscopy and infrared spectroscopy, we established a correlation between the Fermi resonance of the N-D mode and protein secondary structures. The H-bond of N-D···C═O splits the N-D modes into two peaks (∼2410 and ∼2470 cm-1). The relative strength ratio (R) between the ∼2410 cm-1 peak and the ∼2470 cm-1 peak is very sensitive to H-bond strength and protein secondary structure. R is less than 1 for α-helical peptides, while R is greater than 1 for β-sheet peptides. For R < 2.5, both α-helical/loop structures and β-sheet structures exhibit almost identical Fermi coupling strengths (W = 28 cm-1). For R > 2.5, W decreases from 28 to 14 cm-1 and depends on the aggregation degree of the β-sheet oligomers or fibrils. The initial local H-bonding status impacts the misfolding dynamics of proteins at the lipid bilayer interface.

Bovine serum albumin uptake and polypeptide disaggregation studies of hypoglycemic ruthenium(II) uracil Schiff-base complexes

Our prior studies have illustrated that the uracil ruthenium(II) diimino complex, [Ru(H3ucp)Cl(PPh3)] (1) (H4ucp = 2,6-bis-((6-amino-1,3-dimethyluracilimino)methylene)pyridine) displayed high hypoglycemic effects in diet-induced diabetic rats. To rationalize the anti-diabetic effects of 1, three new derivatives have been prepared, cis-[Ru(bpy)2(urdp)]Cl2 (2) (urdp = 2,6-bis-((uracilimino)methylene)pyridine), trans-[RuCl2(PPh3)(urdp)] (3), and cis-[Ru(bpy)2(H4ucp)](PF6)2 (4). Various physicochemical techniques were utilized to characterize the structures of the novel ruthenium compounds. Prior to biomolecular interactions or in vitro studies, the stabilities of 1-4 were monitored in anhydrous DMSO, aqueous phosphate buffer containing 2% DMSO, and dichloromethane (DCM) via UV-Vis spectrophotometry. Time-dependent stability studies showed ligand exchange between DMSO nucleophiles and chloride co-ligands of 1 and 3, which was suppressed in the presence of an excess amount of chloride ions. In addition, the metal complexes 1 and 3 are stable in both DCM and an aqueous phosphate buffer containing 2% DMSO. In the case of compounds 2 and 4 with no chloride co-ligands within their coordination spheres, high stability in aqueous phosphate buffer containing 2% DMSO was observed. Fluorescence emission titrations of the individual ruthenium compounds with bovine serum albumin (BSA) showed that the metal compounds interact non-discriminately within the protein's hydrophobic cavities as moderate to strong binders. The metal complexes were capable of disintegrating mature amylin amyloid fibrils. In vivo glucose metabolism studies in liver (Chang) cell lines confirmed enhanced glucose metabolism as evidenced by the increased glucose utilization and glycogen synthesis in liver cell lines in the presence of complexes 2-4.

Probing the Molecular Structure and Dynamics of Membrane-Bound Proteins during Misfolding Processes by Sum-Frequency Generation Vibrational Spectroscopy

Protein misfolding and amyloid formation are implicated in the protein dysfunction, but the underlying mechanism remains to be clarified due to the lack of effective tools for detecting the transient intermediates. Sum frequency generation vibrational spectroscopy (SFG-VS) has emerged as a powerful tool for identifying the structure and dynamics of proteins at the interfaces. In this review, we summarize recent SFG-VS studies on the structure and dynamics of membrane-bound proteins during misfolding processes. This paper first introduces the methods for determining the secondary structure of interfacial proteins: combining chiral and achiral spectra of amide A and amide I bands and combining amide I, amide II, and amide III spectral features. To demonstrate the ability of SFG-VS in investigating the interfacial protein misfolding and amyloid formation, studies on the interactions between different peptides/proteins (islet amyloid polypeptide, amyloid β, prion protein, fused in sarcoma protein, hen egg-white lysozyme, fusing fusion peptide, class I hydrophobin SC3 and class II hydrophobin HFBI) and surfaces such as lipid membranes are discussed. These molecular-level studies revealed that SFG-VS can provide a unique understanding of the mechanism of interfacial protein misfolding and amyloid formation in real time, in situ and without any exogenous labeling.

Intermolecular Protein-Water Coupling Impedes the Coupling Between the Amide A and Amide I Mode in Interfacial Proteins

The coupling between different vibrational modes in proteins is essential for chemical dynamics and biological functions and is linked to the propagation of conformational changes and pathways of allosteric communication. However, little is known about the influence of intermolecular protein-H2O coupling on the vibrational coupling between amide A (NH) and amide I (C═O) bands. Here, we investigate the NH/CO coupling strength in various peptides with different secondary structures at the lipid cell membrane/H2O interface using femtosecond time-resolved sum frequency generation vibrational spectroscopy (SFG-VS) in which a femtosecond infrared pump is used to excite the amide A band, and SFG-VS is used to probe transient spectral evolution in the amide A and amide I bands. Our results reveal that the NH/CO coupling strength strongly depends on the bandwidth of the amide I mode and the coupling of proteins with water molecules. A large extent of protein-water coupling significantly reduces the delocalization of the amide I mode along the peptide chain and impedes the NH/CO coupling strength. A large NH/CO coupling strength is found to show a strong correlation with the high energy transfer rate found in the light-harvesting proteins of green sulfur bacteria, which may understand the mechanism of energy transfer through a molecular system and assist in controlling vibrational energy transfer by engineering the molecular structures to achieve high energy transfer efficiency.

Structural diversity in the membrane-bound hIAPP dimer correlated with distinct membrane disruption mechanisms

Amyloid deposits of the human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP) have been identified in 90% of patients with type II diabetes. Cellular membranes accelerate the hIAPP fibrillation, and the integrity of membranes is also disrupted at the same time, leading to the apoptosis of β cells in pancreas. The molecular mechanism of hIAPP-induced membrane disruption, especially during the initial membrane disruption stage, has not been well understood yet. Herein, we carried out extensive all-atom molecular dynamics simulations investigating the hIAPP dimerization process in the anionic POPG membrane, to provide the detailed molecular mechanisms during the initial hIAPP aggregation stage in the membrane environment. Compared to the hIAPP monomer on the membrane, we observed not only an increase of α-helical structures, but also a substantial increase of β-sheet structures upon spontaneous dimerization. Moreover, the random coiled and α-helical dimer structures insert deep into the membrane interior with a few inter-chain contacts at the C-terminal region, while the β-sheet-rich structures reside on the membrane surface accompanied by strong inter-chain hydrophobic interactions. The coexistence of α and β structures constitutes a diverse structural ensemble of the membrane-bound hIAPP dimer. From α-helical to β-sheet structures, the degree of membrane disruption decreases gradually, and thus the membrane damage induced by random coiled and α-helical structures precedes that induced by β-sheet structures. We speculate that insertion of random coiled and α-helical structures contributes to the initial stage of membrane damage, while β-sheet structures on the membrane surface are more involved in the later stage of fibril-induced membrane disruption.

Artificial Intelligence-based Amide-II Infrared Spectroscopy Simulation for Monitoring Protein Hydrogen Bonding Dynamics

The structurally sensitive amide II infrared (IR) bands of proteins provide valuable information about the hydrogen bonding of protein secondary structures, which is crucial for understanding protein dynamics and associated functions. However, deciphering protein structures from experimental amide II spectra relies on time-consuming quantum chemical calculations on tens of thousands of representative configurations in solvent water. Currently, the accurate simulation of amide II spectra for whole proteins remains a challenge. Here, we present a machine learning (ML)-based protocol designed to efficiently simulate the amide II IR spectra of various proteins with an accuracy comparable to experimental results. This protocol stands out as a cost-effective and efficient alternative for studying protein dynamics, including the identification of secondary structures and monitoring the dynamics of protein hydrogen bonding under different pH conditions and during protein folding process. Our method provides a valuable tool in the field of protein research, focusing on the study of dynamic properties of proteins, especially those related to hydrogen bonding, using amide II IR spectroscopy.

In situ study of structural changes: Exploring the mechanism of protein corona transition from soft to hard

HYPOTHESIS

The process of protein corona changes has been widely believed to follow the Vroman effect, while protein structural change during the process is rarely reported, due to the lack of analytical methods. In-situ interpretation for protein structural change is critical to processes such as the recognition and transport of nanomaterials.

EXPERIMENTS

Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation was used to predict the deflection and twist of the protein tertiary structure. The structural changes of the surface protein corona during the interaction of nanoparticles (NPs) with lipid bilayer were probed in situ and real-time by sum frequency generation (SFG) spectroscopy.

FINDINGS

The ring tertiary structure of the protein corona is altered from vertical to horizontal on particle surface, a process of the soft-to-hard structural transition, which is contributed by the hydrogen bonding force between the protein and water molecules. The negatively charged protein corona can induce the redistribution of interfacial charge, leading to a more stable hydrogen bond network of the interfacial water. Our findings suggest that the structural change from flexible to rigid is a crucial process in the soft-to-hard transition of the protein corona, which will be a beneficial supplement to the Vroman effect of protein adsorption.

Creating an Amyloid 'Kaleidoscope' Using Short Iodinated Peptides

Amyloid fibrils formed by peptides with different sequences exhibit diversified morphologies, material properties and activities, making them valuable for developing functional bionanomaterials. However, the molecular understanding underlying the structural diversity of peptide fibrillar assembly at atomic level is still lacking. In this study, by using cryogenic electron microscopy, we first revealed the structural basis underlying the highly reversible assembly of 1 GFGGNDNFG9 (referred to as hnRAC1) peptide fibril. Furthermore, by installing iodine at different sites of hnRAC1, we generated a collection of peptide fibrils with distinct thermostability. By determining the atomic structures of the iodinated fibrils, we discovered that iodination at different sites of the peptide facilitates the formation of diverse halogen bonds and triggers the assembly of entirely different structures of iodinated fibrils. Finally, based on this structural knowledge, we designed an iodinated peptide that assembles into new atomic structures of fibrils, exhibiting superior thermostability, that aligned with our design. Our work provides an in-depth understanding of the atomic-level processes underlying the formation of diverse peptide fibril structures, and paves the way for creating an amyloid "kaleidoscope" by employing various modifications and peptide sequences to fine-tune the atomic structure and properties of fibrillar nanostructures.

Detecting Interplay of Chirality, Water, and Interfaces for Elucidating Biological Functions

Chemists have long been fascinated by chirality, water, and interfaces, making tremendous progress in each research area. However, the chemistry emerging from the interplay of chirality, water, and interfaces has been difficult to study due to technical challenges, creating a barrier to elucidating biological functions at interfaces. Most biopolymers (proteins, DNA, and RNA) fold into macroscopic chiral structures to perform biological functions. Their folding requires water, but water behaves differently at interfaces where the bulk water hydrogen-bonding network terminates. A question arises as to how water molecules rearrange to minimize free energy at interfaces while stabilizing the macroscopic folding of biopolymers to support biological function. This question is central to solving many research challenges, including the molecular origin of biological homochirality, folding and insertion of proteins into cell membranes, and the design of heterogeneous biocatalysts. Researchers can resolve these challenges if they have the theoretical tools to accurately predict molecular behaviors of water and biopolymers at various interfaces. However, developing such tools requires validation by the experimental data. These experimental data are scarce because few physical methods can simultaneously distinguish chiral folding of the biopolymers, separate signals of interfaces from the overwhelming background of bulk solvent, and differentiate water in hydration shells of the polymers from water elsewhere.We recently illustrated these very capacities of chirality-sensitive vibrational sum frequency generation spectroscopy (chiral SFG). While chiral SFG theory dictates that the method is surface-specific under the condition of electronic nonresonance, we show the method can distinguish chiral folding of proteins and DNA and probe water structures in the first hydration shell of proteins at interfaces. Using amide I signals, we observe protein folding into β-sheets without background signals from α-helices and disordered structures at interfaces, thereby demonstrating the effect of 2D crowding on protein folding. Also, chiral SFG signals of C-H stretches are silent from single-stranded DNA, but prominent for canonical antiparallel duplexes as well as noncanonical parallel duplexes at interfaces, allowing for sensing DNA secondary structures and hybridization. In establishing chiral SFG for detecting protein hydration structures, we observe an H218O isotopic shift that reveals water contribution to the chiral SFG spectra. Additionally, the phase of the O-H stretching bands flips when the protein chirality is switched from L to D. These experimental results agree with our simulated chiral SFG spectra of water hydrating the β-sheet protein at the vacuum-water interface. The simulations further reveal that over 90% of the total chiral SFG signal comes from water in the first hydration shell. We conclude that the chiral SFG signals originate from achiral water molecules that assemble around the protein into a chiral supramolecular structure with chirality transferred from the protein. As water O-H stretches can reveal hydrogen-bonding interactions, chiral SFG shows promise in probing the structures and dynamics of water-biopolymer interactions at interfaces. Altogether, our work has created an experimental and computational framework for chiral SFG to elucidate biological functions at interfaces, setting the stage for probing the intricate chemical interplay of chirality, water, and interfaces.

Fibril formation and ordering of disordered FUS LC driven by hydrophobic interactions

Biomolecular condensates, protein-rich and dynamic membrane-less organelles, play critical roles in a range of subcellular processes, including membrane trafficking and transcriptional regulation. However, aberrant phase transitions of intrinsically disordered proteins in biomolecular condensates can lead to the formation of irreversible fibrils and aggregates that are linked to neurodegenerative diseases. Despite the implications, the interactions underlying such transitions remain obscure. Here we investigate the role of hydrophobic interactions by studying the low-complexity domain of the disordered 'fused in sarcoma' (FUS) protein at the air/water interface. Using surface-specific microscopic and spectroscopic techniques, we find that a hydrophobic interface drives fibril formation and molecular ordering of FUS, resulting in solid-like film formation. This phase transition occurs at 600-fold lower FUS concentration than required for the canonical FUS low-complexity liquid droplet formation in bulk. These observations highlight the importance of hydrophobic effects for protein phase separation and suggest that interfacial properties drive distinct protein phase-separated structures.

Conformation and Orientation of Antimicrobial Peptides MSI-594 and MSI-594A in a Lipid Membrane

There is significant interest in the development of antimicrobial compounds to overcome the increasing bacterial resistance to conventional antibiotics. Studies have shown that naturally occurring and de novo-designed antimicrobial peptides could be promising candidates. MSI-594 is a synthetic linear, cationic peptide that has been reported to exhibit a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activities. Investigation into how MSI-594 disrupts the cell membrane is important for better understanding the details of this antimicrobial peptide (AMP)'s action against bacterial cells. In this study, we used two different synthetic lipid bilayers: zwitterionic 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) and anionic 7:3 POPC/1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho(1'-rac-glycerol) (POPG). Sum frequency generation (SFG) vibrational spectroscopy and attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) were used to determine the orientations of MSI-594 and its analogue MSI-594A associated with zwitterionic POPC and anionic 7:3 POPC/POPG lipid bilayers. The simulated ATR-FTIR and SFG spectra using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-determined structures were compared with experimental spectra to optimize the bent angle between the N- (1-11) and C- (12-24) termini helices and the membrane orientations of the helices; since the NMR structure of the peptide was determined from lipopolysaccharide (LPS) micelles, the optimization was needed to find the most suitable conformation and orientation in lipid bilayers. The reported experimental results indicate that the optimized MSI-594 helical hairpin structure adopts a complete lipid bilayer surface-bound orientation (denoted "face-on") in both POPC and 7:3 POPC/POPG lipid bilayers. The analogue peptide, MSI-584A, on the other hand, exhibited a larger bent angle between the N- (1-11) and C- (12-24) termini helices with the hydrophobic C-terminal helix inserted into the hydrophobic region of the bilayer (denoted "membrane-inserted") when interacting with both POPC and 7:3 POPC/POPG lipid bilayers. These experimental findings on the membrane orientations suggest that both peptides are likely to disrupt the cell membrane through the carpet mechanism.

Monitoring the Molecular Structure of Fibrinogen during the Adsorption Process at the Buried Silicone Oil Interface In Situ in Real Time

Interfacial proteins play important roles in many research fields and applications, such as biosensors, biomedical implants, nonfouling coatings, etc. Directly probing interfacial protein behavior at buried solid/liquid and liquid/liquid interfaces is challenging. We used sum frequency generation vibrational spectroscopy and a Hamiltonian data analysis method to monitor the molecular structure of fibrinogen on silicone oil during the adsorption process in situ in real time. The results showed that the adsorbed fibrinogen molecules tend to adopt a bent structure throughout the entire adsorption process with the same orientation. This is different from the case of adsorbed fibrinogen on CaF₂ with a linear structure or on polystyrene with a bent structure but a different orientation. The method introduced herein is generally applicable for following time-dependent molecular structures of many other proteins and peptides at interfaces in situ in real time at the molecular level.

Determination of protein conformation and orientation at buried solid/liquid interfaces

Protein structures at solid/liquid interfaces mediate interfacial protein functions, which are important for many applications. It is difficult to probe interfacial protein structures at buried solid/liquid interfaces in situ at the molecular level. Here, a systematic methodology to determine protein molecular structures (orientation and conformation) at buried solid/liquid interfaces in situ was successfully developed with a combined approach using a nonlinear optical spectroscopic technique - sum frequency generation (SFG) vibrational spectroscopy, isotope labeling, spectra calculation, and computer simulation. With this approach, molecular structures of protein GB1 and its mutant (with two amino acids mutated) were investigated at the polymer/solution interface. Markedly different orientations and similar (but not identical) conformations of the wild-type protein GB1 and its mutant at the interface were detected, due to the varied molecular interfacial interactions. This systematic strategy is general and can be widely used to elucidate protein structures at buried interfaces in situ.

Molecular Behavior of 1K Polyurethane Adhesive at Buried Interfaces: Plasma Treatment, Annealing, and Adhesion

One-part (1K) polyurethane (PU) adhesive has excellent bulk strength and environmental resistance. It is therefore widely used in many fields, such as construction, transportation, and flexible lamination. However, when contacting non-polar polymer materials, the poor adhesion of 1K PU adhesive may not be able to support its outdoor applications. To solve this problem, plasma treatment of the non-polar polymer surface has been utilized to improve adhesion between the polymer and 1K PU adhesive. The detailed mechanisms of adhesion enhancement of the 1K PU adhesive caused by plasma treatment on polymer substrates have not been studied extensively because adhesion is a property of buried interfaces which are difficult to probe. In this study, sum frequency generation (SFG) vibrational spectroscopy was used to investigate the buried PU/polypropylene (PP) interfaces in situ nondestructively. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, the X-ray diffraction technique, and adhesion tests were used as supplemental methods to SFG in the study. The 1K PU adhesive is a moisture-curing adhesive and usually needs several days to be fully cured. Here, time-dependent SFG experiments were conducted to monitor the molecular behaviors at the buried 1K PU adhesive/PP interfaces during the curing process. It was found that the PU adhesives underwent rearrangement during the curing process with functional groups gradually becoming ordered at the interface. Stronger adhesion between the plasma-treated PP substrate and the 1K PU adhesive was observed, which was achieved by the interfacial chemical reactions and a more rigid interface. Annealing the samples increased the reaction speed and enhanced the bulk PU strength with higher crystallinity. In this research, molecular mechanisms of adhesion enhancement of the 1K PU adhesive caused by the plasma treatment on PP and by annealing the PU/PP samples were elucidated.

Direct observation of long-range chirality transfer in a self-assembled supramolecular monolayer at interface in situ

Due to the interest in the origin of life and the need to synthesize new functional materials, the study of the origin of chirality has been given significant attention. The mechanism of chirality transfer at molecular and supramolecular levels remains underexplored. Herein, we study the mechanism of chirality transfer of N, N'-bis (octadecyl)-_L-_/D-(anthracene-9-carboxamide)-glutamic diamide (_L-_/D-GAn) supramolecular chiral self-assembled at the air/water interface by chiral sum-frequency generation vibrational spectroscopy (chiral SFG) and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. We observe long-range chirality transfer in the systems. The chirality of C_α-H is transferred first to amide groups and then transferred to the anthracene unit, through intermolecular hydrogen bonds and π-π stacking to produce an antiparallel β-sheet-like structure, and finally it is transferred to the end of hydrophobic alkyl chains at the interface. These results are relevant for understanding the chirality origin in supramolecular systems and the rational design of supramolecular chiral materials.

Sum frequency spectroscopy studies on cell membrane fusion induced by divalent cations

Cell membrane fusion is a fundamental biological process involved in a number of cellular living functions. Regarding this, divalent cations can induce fusion of the lipid bilayers through binding and bridging of divalent cations to the charged lipids, thus leading to the cell membrane fusion. How-ever, the elaborate mechanism of cell membrane fusion induced by divalent cations is still needed to be elucidated. Here, surface/interface sensitive sum frequency generation vibrational spectroscopy (SFG-VS) and dynamic light scattering (DLS) were applied in this research to study the responses of phospholipid monolayer to the exposure of divalent metal ions i.e. Ca2+ and Mg2+. According to the particle size distribution results measured by DLS experiments, it was found that Ca2+ could induce inter-vesicular fusion while Mg2+ could not. An octadecyltrichlorosilane self-assembled monolayer (OTS SAM)-lipid monolayer system was designed to model the cell membrane for the SFG-VS experiment. Ca2+ could interact with the lipid PO2− head groups more strongly, resulting in cell membrane fusion more easily, in comparison with Mg2+. No specific interaction between the two metal cations and the C=O groups was observed. However, the C=O orientations changed more after Ca2+-PO2− binding than Mg2+ mediation on lipid monolayer. Meanwhile, Ca2+ could induce dehydration of the lipids (which should be related to the strong Ca2+-PO2− interaction), leading to the reduced hindrance for cell membrane fusion.

Detecting the First Hydration Shell Structure around Biomolecules at Interfaces

Understanding the role of water in biological processes remains a central challenge in the life sciences. Water structures in hydration shells of biomolecules are difficult to study in situ due to overwhelming background from aqueous environments. Biological interfaces introduce additional complexity because biomolecular hydration differs at interfaces compared to bulk solution. Here, we perform experimental and computational studies of chiral sum frequency generation (chiral SFG) spectroscopy to probe chirality transfer from a protein to the surrounding water molecules. This work reveals that chiral SFG probes the first hydration shell around the protein almost exclusively. We explain the selectivity to the first hydration shell in terms of the asymmetry induced by the protein structure and specific protein-water hydrogen-bonding interactions. This work establishes chiral SFG as a powerful technique for studying hydration shell structures around biomolecules at interfaces, presenting new possibilities to address grand research challenges in biology, including the molecular origins of life.

Probing Molecular Interactions of Antibody Drugs, Silicone Oil, and Surfactant at Buried Interfaces In Situ

Antibody drugs have been rapidly developed to cure many diseases including COVID-19 infection. Silicone oil is commonly used as a lubricant coating material for devices used in the pharmaceutical industry to store and administer antibody drug formulations. However, the interaction between silicone oil and antibody molecules could lead to the adsorption, denaturation, and aggregation of antibody molecules, impacting the efficacy of antibody drugs. Here, we studied the molecular interactions between antibodies and silicone oil in situ in real time. The effect of the surfactant on such interactions was also investigated. Specifically, the adsorption dynamics of a bispecific antibody (BsAb) onto a silicone oil surface without and with different concentrations of the surfactant PS80 in antibody solutions were monitored. Also the possible lowest effective PS80 concentrations that can prevent the adsorption of BsAb as well as a monoclonal antibody (mAb) onto silicone oil were measured. It was found that different concentrations of PS80 are required for preventing the adsorption of different antibodies. Both BsAB and mAB denature on silicone oil without a surfactant. However, for a low surfactant concentration in the solution, although the surfactant could not completely prevent the antibody from adsorption, it could maintain the native structures of adsorbed BsAb and mAb antibodies on silicone oil. This is important knowledge, showing that to prevent antibody aggregation on silicone oil it is not necessary to add surfactant to a concentration high enough to completely minimize protein adsorption.

Acidic pH Promotes Refolding and Macroscopic Assembly of Amyloid β (16-22) Peptides at the Air-Water Interface

Assembly by amyloid-beta (Aβ) peptides is vital for various neurodegenerative diseases. The process can be accelerated by hydrophobic interfaces such as the cell membrane interface and the air-water interface. Elucidating the assembly mechanism for Aβ peptides at hydrophobic interface requires knowledge of the microscopic structure of interfacial peptides. Here we combine scanning force microscopy, sum-frequency generation spectroscopy, and metadynamics simulations to probe the structure of the central fragment of Aβ peptides at the air-water interface. We find that the structure of interfacial peptides depends on pH: at neutral pH, the peptides adopt a less folded, bending motif by forming intra-hydrogen bonds; at acidic pH, the peptides refold into extended β-strand fibril conformation, which further promotes their macroscopic assembly. The conformational transition of interfacial peptides is driven by the reduced hydrogen bonds, both with water and within peptides, resulting from the protonation of acidic glutamic acid side chains.

Molecular Dynamics Simulations of the Tau Amyloid Fibril Core Dimer at the Surface of a Lipid Bilayer Model: I. In Alzheimer's Disease

A tau R3-R4 domain spanning residues 306-378 was shown to form an amyloid fibril core of a full-length tau in the brain of patients with Alzheimer's disease. Recently, we studied the dynamics of a tau R3-R4 monomer at the surface of a lipid bilayer model and revealed deep insertion of the amino acids spanning the PHF6 motif (residues 306-311) and its flanking residues. Here, we explore the membrane-associated conformational ensemble of a tau R3-R4 dimer by means of atomistic molecular dynamics. Similar to the monomer simulation, the R3-R4 dimer has the propensity to form β-hairpin-like conformation. Unlike the monomer, the dimer shows insertion of the C-terminal R4 region and transient adsorption of the PHF6 motif. Taken together, these results reveal the multiplicity of adsorption and insertion modes of tau into membranes depending on its oligomer size.

Revealing the mechanisms of vesicle formation with multiple spectral methods

The investigation of the self-assembly of amphiphilic molecules and the formation of micelles/vesicles has attracted significant attention. However, in situ and real-time methods for such studies are rare. Here, a surface-sensitive second harmonic generation (SHG) technique was applied to study the formation of vesicles in solutions of an anti-cancer drug, doxorubicin (DOX), and a generally used surfactant (sodium bis (2-ethylhexyl) sulfosuccinate, AOT). With the aid of two-photon fluorescence (TPF), Rayleigh scattering and TEM, we revealed the structural evolution of the aggregated micelles/vesicles. It was found that AOT and DOX molecules rapidly aggregated and formed micelles in the solution. The residual DOX then acted as a "glue" that induced the aggregating/growing of the micelles and the transformation from aggregates to vesicles. The existence of lipid films, which was considered as the necessary intermediate state for vesicle formation, was excluded via the SHG observations, indicating that hollow shells may be directly transformed from solid aggregated micelles in the self-assembly formation of complex vesicles. The combined spectroscopic methods were also used to investigate the formation of vesicles from a commonly used lipid (i.e., 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-rac-(1-glycerol) sodium salt, DOPG) from its stacked bilayers. The swelling, curving and sealing of the DOPG bilayers for vesicle formation was monitored and clear dynamics were revealed. This work shows that the vesicle formation mechanism varies with the initial state of the surfactant/lipid molecules. It not only demonstrates the capability of the combined spectroscopic methods in investigating the aggregated systems but also provides new insight for understanding the formation of vesicles.

Structure and Orientation of the SARS-Coronavirus-2 Spike Protein at Air-Water Interfaces

The SARS coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spike protein is located at the outermost perimeter of the viral envelope and is the first component of the virus to make contact with surrounding interfaces. The stability of the spike protein when in contact with surfaces plays a deciding role for infection pathways and for the viability of the virus after surface contact. While cryo-EM structures of the spike protein have been solved with high resolution and structural studies in solution have provided information about the secondary and tertiary structures, only little is known about the folding when adsorbed to surfaces. We here report on the secondary structure and orientation of the S1 segment of the spike protein, which is often used as a model protein for in vitro studies of SARS-CoV-2, at the air-water interface using surface-sensitive vibrational sum-frequency generation (SFG) spectroscopy. The air-water interface plays an important role for SARS-CoV-2 when suspended in aerosol droplets, and it serves as a model system for hydrophobic surfaces in general. The SFG experiments show that the S1 segment of the spike protein remains folded at the air-water interface and predominantly binds in its monomeric state, while the combination of small-angle X-ray scattering and two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy measurements indicate that it forms hexamers with the same secondary structure in aqueous solution.

Revealing local molecular distribution, orientation, phase separation, and formation of domains in artificial lipid layers: Towards comprehensive characterization of biological membranes

Lipids, together with molecules such as DNA and proteins, are one of the most relevant systems responsible for the existence of life. Selected lipids are able to assembly into various organized structures, such as lipid membranes. The unique properties of lipid membranes determine their complex functions, not only to separate biological environments, but also to participate in regulatory functions, absorption of nutrients, cell-cell communication, endocytosis, cell signaling, and many others. Despite numerous scientific efforts, still little is known about the reason underlying the variability within lipid membranes, and its biochemical significance. In this review, we discuss the structural complexity of lipid membranes, as well as the importance to simplify studied systems in order to understand phenomena occurring in natural, complex membranes. Such systems require a model interface to be analyzed. Therefore, here we focused on analytical studies of artificial systems at various interfaces. The molecular structure of lipid membranes, specifically the nanometric thickens of molecular bilayer, limits in a major extent the choice of highly sensitive methods suitable to study such structures. Therefore, we focused on methods that combine high sensitivity, and/or chemical selectivity, and/or nanometric spatial resolution, such as atomic force microscopy, nanospectroscopy (tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, infrared nanospectroscopy), phase modulation infrared reflection-absorption spectroscopy, sum-frequency generation spectroscopy. We summarized experimental and theoretical approaches providing information about molecular structure and composition, lipid spatial distribution (phase separation), organization (domain shape, molecular orientation) of lipid membranes, and real-time visualization of the influence of various molecules (proteins, drugs) on their integrity. An integral part of this review discusses the latest achievements in the field of lipid layer-based biosensors.

Probing Covalent Interactions at a Silicone Adhesive/Nylon Interface

Covalent bonding is one of the most robust forms of intramolecular interaction between adhesives and substrates. In contrast to most noncovalent interactions, covalent bonds can significantly enhance both the interfacial strength and durability. To utilize the advantages of covalent bonding, specific chemical reactions are designed to occur at interfaces. However, interfacial reactions are difficult to probe in situ, particularly at the buried interfaces found in well-bonded adhesive joints. In this work, sum frequency generational (SFG) vibrational spectroscopy was used to directly examine and analyze the interfacial chemical reactions and related molecular changes at buried nylon/silicone elastomer interfaces. For self-priming elastomeric silicone adhesives, silane coupling agents have been extensively used as adhesion promoters. Here with SFG, the interfacial chemical reactions between nylon and two alkoxysilane adhesion promoters with varied functionalities (maleic anhydride (MAH) and epoxy) formulated into the silicone were observed and investigated. Evidence of reactions between the organofunctional group of each silane and reactive groups on the polyamide was found at the buried interface between the cured silicone elastomer and nylon. The adhesion strength at the nylon/cured silicone interfaces was substantially enhanced with both silane additives. SFG results elucidated the mechanisms of organo-silane adhesion promotion for silicone at the molecular level. The ability to probe and analyze detailed interfacial reactions at buried nylon/silicone interfaces demonstrated that SFG is a powerful analytical technique to aid the design and optimization of materials with desired interfacial properties.

Probing protein aggregation at buried interfaces: distinguishing between adsorbed protein monomers, dimers, and a monomer-dimer mixture in situ

Protein adsorption on surfaces greatly impacts many applications such as biomedical materials, anti-biofouling coatings, bio-separation membranes, biosensors, antibody protein drugs etc. For example, protein drug adsorption on the widely used lubricant silicone oil surface may induce protein aggregation and thus affect the protein drug efficacy. It is therefore important to investigate the molecular behavior of proteins at the silicone oil/solution interface. Such an interfacial study is challenging because the targeted interface is buried. By using sum frequency generation vibrational spectroscopy (SFG) with Hamiltonian local mode approximation method analysis, we studied protein adsorption at the silicone oil/protein solution interface in situ in real time, using bovine serum albumin (BSA) as a model. The results showed that the interface was mainly covered by BSA dimers. The deduced BSA dimer orientation on the silicone oil surface from the SFG study can be explained by the surface distribution of certain amino acids. To confirm the BSA dimer adsorption, we treated adsorbed BSA dimer molecules with dithiothreitol (DTT) to dissociate these dimers. SFG studies on adsorbed BSA after the DTT treatment indicated that the silicone oil surface is covered by BSA dimers and BSA monomers in an approximate 6 : 4 ratio. That is to say, about 25% of the adsorbed BSA dimers were converted to monomers after the DTT treatment. Extensive research has been reported in the literature to determine adsorbed protein dimer formation using ex situ experiments, e.g., by washing off the adsorbed proteins from the surface then analyzing the washed-off proteins, which may induce substantial errors in the washing process. Dimerization is a crucial initial step for protein aggregation. This research developed a new methodology to investigate protein aggregation at a solid/liquid (or liquid/liquid) interface in situ in real time using BSA dimer as an example, which will greatly impact many research fields and applications involving interfacial biological molecules.

Sum frequency generation spectroscopy of the attachment disc of a spider

The pyriform silk of the attachment disc of a spider was studied using infrared-visible vibrational sum frequency generation (SFG) spectroscopy. The spider can attach dragline and radial lines to many kinds of substrates in nature (concrete, alloy, metal, glass, plant branches, leaves, etc.) with the attachment disc. The adhesion can bear the spider's own weight, and resist the wind on its orb web. From our SFG spectroscopy study, the NH group of arginine side chain and/or NH₂ group of arginine and glutamine side chain in the amino acid sequence of the attachment silk proteins are suggested to be oriented in the disc. It was inferred from the observed doublet SFG peaks at around 3300 cm^-1 that the oriented peptide contains two kinds of structures.

Hypothermic Stem Cell Storage Using a Polypeptide Thermogel

We report a polypeptide-based thermogel as a new tool for hypothermic storage of stem cells at ambient temperature (25 °C). Stem cells were suspended in the sol state (10 °C) of an aqueous poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(l-alanine) (PEG-PA) solution (4.0 wt %) in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), which turned into a stem cell-incorporated gel by a heat-induced sol-to-gel transition. The cell harvesting procedure from the thermogels was simply performed through a gel-to-sol transition by diluting and cooling the system. More than 99% of stem cells died in PBS and Pluronic F127 thermogel (control thermogel) when the cells were stored at 25 °C for 7 days. The cell recovery rate from the PEG-PA thermogel (64%) was significantly greater than that from the commercially available HypoThermosol FRS preservation solution (HTS) (26%). Additionally, the surviving stem cells from the PEG-PA thermogel were healthier than those from HTS in terms of (1) expression of stemness biomarkers (NANOG, OCT4, and SOX2), (2) proliferation rate, and (3) differentiation potentials into osteogenic, chondrogenic, and adipogenic lineages. Membrane stabilization was suggested as a cell protection mechanism in the cytocompatible PEG-PA thermogel. The PEG-PA thermogel provides a convenient cytocompatible way for the storage and recovery of cells and thus is a promising tool for the transportation and short-term banking of cells.

Probing Intermolecular Interactions of Amyloidogenic Fragments of SOD1 by Site-Specific Tryptophan and Its Noncanonical Derivative

Transient amyloid intermediates are likely to be cytotoxic and play an essential role in amyloid-associated neurodegenerative diseases. Characterization of their structural and dynamic evolution is the key to elucidating the molecular mechanism of amyloid formation. Here, combining circular dichroism (CD), exciton couplet theory, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy with site-specific tryptophan (Trp) and its noncanonical derivative 5-cyano-tryptochan (Trp_5CN), we developed a method to monitor strand-to-strand tertiary and sheet-to-sheet quaternary interactions in the aggregation cascades of an amyloidogenic fragment from protein SOD1_28-38 (with the sequence KVKVWGSIKGL). We found that the exciton couplet generated from the B_b band of Trp can be used as a probe for side chain interactions. Its sensitivity can be further improved by four times with the incorporation of Trp_5CN. We further observed a red-shift of ∼2 cm^-1 and a broadening of ∼2 cm^-1 in the IR band generated from the CN stretch during the aggregation, which we attributed to the transition from a corkscrew-like structure to a cross-linked intermediate phase. We show here that the integration of optical methods with unique aromatic side chain-related probes is able to elucidate amyloid intermolecular interactions and even capture elusive transient intermediates on and off the amyloid assembling pathway.

Probing Orientations and Conformations of Peptides and Proteins at Buried Interfaces

Molecular structures of peptides/proteins at interfaces determine their interfacial properties, which play important roles in many applications. It is difficult to probe interfacial peptide/protein structures because of the lack of appropriate tools. Sum frequency generation (SFG) vibrational spectroscopy has been developed into a powerful technique to elucidate molecular structures of peptides/proteins at buried solid/liquid and liquid/liquid interfaces. SFG has been successfully applied to study molecular interactions between model cell membranes and antimicrobial peptides/membrane proteins, surface-immobilized peptides/enzymes, and physically adsorbed peptides/proteins on polymers and 2D materials. A variety of other analytical techniques and computational simulations provide supporting information to SFG studies, leading to more complete understanding of structure-function relationships of interfacial peptides/proteins. With the advance of SFG techniques and data analysis methods, along with newly developed supplemental tools and simulation methodology, SFG research on interfacial peptides/proteins will further impact research in fields like chemistry, biology, biophysics, engineering, and beyond.

Interaction of Amyloid-β-(1-42) Peptide and Its Aggregates with Lipid/Water Interfaces Probed by Vibrational Sum-Frequency Generation Spectroscopy

In this study, we use surface-sensitive vibrational sum-frequency generation (VSFG) spectroscopy to investigate the interaction between model lipid monolayers and Aβ(1-42) in its monomeric and aggregated states. Combining VSFG with atomic force microscopy (AFM) and thioflavin T (ThT) fluorescence measurements, we found that only small aggregates with probably a β-hairpin-like structure adsorbed to the zwitterionic lipid monolayer (DOPC). In contrast, larger aggregates with an extended β-sheet structure adsorbed to a negatively charged lipid monolayer (DOPG). The adsorption of small, initially formed aggregates strongly destabilized both monolayers, but only the DOPC monolayer was completely disrupted. We showed that the intensity of the amide-II' band in achiral (SSP) and chiral (SPP) polarization combinations increased in time when Aβ(1-42) aggregates accumulated at the DOPG monolayer. Nevertheless, almost no adsorption of preformed mature fibrils to DOPG monolayers was detected. By performing spectral VSFG calculations, we revealed a clear correlation between the amide-II' signal and the degree of amyloid aggregates (e.g., oligomers or (proto)fibrils) of various Aβ(1-42) structures. The calculations showed that only structures with a significant amyloid β-sheet content have a strong amide-II' intensity, in line with previous Raman studies. The combination of the presented results substantiates the amide-II(') band as a legitimate amyloid marker.

Strong Surface Hydration and Salt Resistant Mechanism of a New Nonfouling Zwitterionic Polymer Based on Protein Stabilizer TMAO

Zwitterionic polymers exhibit excellent nonfouling performance due to their strong surface hydrations. However, salt molecules may severely reduce the surface hydrations of typical zwitterionic polymers, making the application of these polymers in real biological and marine environments challenging. Recently, a new zwitterionic polymer brush based on the protein stabilizer trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) was developed as an outstanding nonfouling material. Using surface-sensitive sum frequency generation (SFG) vibrational spectroscopy, we investigated the surface hydration of TMAO polymer brushes (pTMAO) and the effects of salts and proteins on such surface hydration. It was discovered that exposure to highly concentrated salt solutions such as seawater only moderately reduced surface hydration. This superior resistance to salt effects compared to other zwitterionic polymers is due to the shorter distance between the positively and negatively charged groups, thus a smaller dipole in pTMAO and strong hydration around TMAO zwitterion. This results in strong bonding interactions between the O- in pTMAO and water, and weaker interaction between O- and metal cations due to the strong repulsion from the N+ and hydration water. Computer simulations at quantum and atomistic scales were performed to support SFG analyses. In addition to the salt effect, it was discovered that exposure to proteins in seawater exerted minimal influence on the pTMAO surface hydration, indicating complete exclusion of protein attachment. The excellent nonfouling performance of pTMAO originates from its extremely strong surface hydration that exhibits effective resistance to disruptions induced by salts and proteins.

Intrinsically Disordered Osteopontin Fragment Orders During Interfacial Calcium Oxalate Mineralization

Calcium oxalate (CaC2 O4 ) is the major component of kidney stone. The acidic osteopontin (OPN) protein in human urine can effectively inhibit the growth of CaC2 O4 crystals, thereby acting as a potent stone preventer. Previous studies in bulk solution all attest to the importance of binding and recognition of OPN at the CaC2 O4 mineral surface, yet molecular level insights into the active interface during CaC2 O4 mineralization are still lacking. Here, we probe the structure of the central OPN fragment and its interaction with Ca2+ and CaC2 O4 at the water-air interface using surface-specific non-linear vibrational spectroscopy. While OPN peptides remain largely disordered in solution, our results reveal that the bidentate binding of Ca2+ ions refold the interfacial peptides into well-ordered and assembled β-turn motifs. One critical intermediate directs mineralization by releasing structural freedom of backbone and binding side chains. These insights into the mineral interface are crucial for understanding the pathological development of kidney stones and possibly relevant for calcium oxalate biomineralization in general.

Developments and Ongoing Challenges for Analysis of Surface-Bound Proteins

Proteins at surfaces and interfaces play important roles in the function and performance of materials in applications ranging from diagnostic assays to biomedical devices. To improve the performance of these materials, detailed molecular structure (conformation and orientation) along with the identity and concentrations of the surface-bound proteins on those materials must be determined. This article describes radiolabeling, surface plasmon resonance, quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, secondary ion mass spectrometry, sum frequency generation spectroscopy, and computational techniques along with the information each technique provides for characterizing protein films. A multitechnique approach using both experimental and computation methods is required for these investigations. Although it is now possible to gain much insight into the structure of surface-bound proteins, it is still not possible to obtain the same level of structural detail about proteins on surfaces as can be obtained about proteins in crystals and solutions, especially for large, complex proteins. However, recent results have shown it is possible to obtain detailed structural information (e.g., backbone and side chain orientation) about small peptides (5-20 amino sequences) on surfaces. Current studies are extending these investigations to small proteins such as protein G B1 (∼6 kDa). Approaches for furthering the capabilities for characterizing the molecular structure of surface-bound proteins are proposed.

Alternative Causal Link between Peptide Fibrillization and β-Strand Conformation

In the prevailing phenomenon of peptide fibrillization, β-strand conformation has long been believed to be an important structural basis for peptide assembly. According to a widely accepted theory, in most peptide fibrillization processes, peptide monomers need to intrinsically take or transform to β-strand conformation before they can undergo ordered packing to form nanofibers. In this study, we reported our findings on an alternative peptide fibrillization pathway starting from a disordered secondary structure, which could then transform to β-strand after fibrillization. By using circular dichroism, thioflavin-T binding test, and transmission electron microscopy, we studied the secondary structure and assembly behavior of Ac-RADARADARADARADA-NH2 (RADA16-I) in a low concentration range. The effects of peptide concentration, solvent polarity, pH, and temperature were investigated in detail. Our results showed that at very low concentrations, even though the peptide was in a disordered secondary structure, it could still form nanofibers through intermolecular assembly, and under higher peptide concentrations, the transformation from the disordered structure to β-strand could happen with the growth of nanofibers. Our results indicated that even without ordered β-strand conformation, driving forces such as hydrophobic interaction and electrostatic interaction could still play a determinative role in the self-assembly of peptides. At least in some cases, the formation of β-strand might be the consequence rather than the cause of peptide fibrillization.

Nonlinear and vibrational microscopy for label-free characterization of amyloid-β plaques in Alzheimer's disease model

Multimodal optical imaging was used for characterization of amyloid-β plaques in mouse brain tissues. We obtained high-resolution images for different biomarkers and investigated vibrational fingerprints that could be used for diagnostic purposes.

Molecular Insights into Adhesion at a Buried Silica-Filled Silicone/Polyethylene Terephthalate Interface

Silicone adhesives are widely used in many important applications in aviation, automotive, construction, and electronics industries. The mixture of (3-glycidoxypropyl)trimethoxysilane (γ-GPS) and hydroxy-terminated dimethyl methylvinyl co-siloxanol (DMMVS) has been widely used as an adhesion promoter in silicone elastomers to enhance the adhesion between silicone and other materials including polymers. The interfacial molecular structures of silicone elastomers and the adhesion promotion mechanisms of a γ-GPS-DMMVS mixture in silicone without a filler or an adhesion catalyst (AC) have been extensively investigated using sum frequency generation (SFG) vibrational spectroscopy previously. In this research, SFG was applied to study interfacial structures of silicone elastomeric adhesives in the presence of a silica filler and/or a zirconium(IV) acetylacetonate adhesion catalyst at the silicone/polyethylene terephthalate (PET) interface in situ nondestructively to understand their individual and synergy effects. The interfacial structures obtained from the SFG study were correlated to the adhesion behavior to PET. The interfacial reactions of methoxy and epoxy groups of the adhesion promoter were found to play significant roles in enhancing the interfacial adhesion of the buried interface. This research provides an in-depth molecular-level understanding on the effects of a filler and an adhesion catalyst on the interfacial behavior of the adhesion promotion system for silicone elastomers as well as the related impact on adhesion.

The human islet amyloid polypeptide in protein misfolding disorders: Mechanisms of aggregation and interaction with biomembranes

Human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP), otherwise known as amylin, is a 37-residue peptide hormone which is reported to be a common factor in protein misfolding disorders such as type-2 diabetes mellitus, Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, due to deposition of insoluble hIAPP amyloid in the pancreas and brain. Multiple studies point to the importance of the peptide's interaction with biological membranes and the cytotoxicity of hIAPP species. Here, we discuss the aggregation pathways of hIAPP amyloid fibril formation and focus on the complex interplay between membrane-mediated assembly of hIAPP and the associated mechanisms of membrane damage caused by the peptide species. Mitochondrial membranes, which are unique in their lipid composition, are proposed as prime targets for the early intracellular formation of hIAPP toxic entities. We suggest that future studies should include more physiologically-relevant and in-cell studies to allow a more accurate model of in vivo interactions. Finally, we underscore an urgent need for developing effective therapeutic strategies aimed at hindering hIAPP-phospholipid interactions.

Orientation and Conformation of Proteins at the Air-Water Interface Determined from Integrative Molecular Dynamics Simulations and Sum Frequency Generation Spectroscopy

Understanding the assembly of proteins at the air-water interface (AWI) informs the formation of protein films, emulsion properties, and protein aggregation. Determination of protein conformation and orientation at an interface is difficult to resolve with a single experimental or simulation technique alone. To date, the interfacial structure of even one of the most widely studied proteins, lysozyme, at the AWI remains unresolved. In this study, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations are used to determine if the protein adopts a side-on, head-on, or axial orientation at the AWI with two different forcefields, GROMOS-53a6 + SPC/E and a99SB-disp + TIP4P-D. Vibrational sum frequency generation (SFG) spectroscopy experiments and spectral SFG calculations validate consistency between the structure determined from MD and experiments. Overall, we show with strong agreement that lysozyme adopts an axial conformation at pH 7. Further, we provide molecular-level insight as to how pH influences the binding domains of lysozyme resulting in side-on adsorption near the isoelectric point of the lysozyme.

Probing Molecular Behavior of Carbonyl Groups at Buried Nylon/Polyolefin Interfaces in Situ

Nylon and maleic anhydride (MAH)-grafted polyolefin-based thin co-extruded multilayer films are widely used in packaging applications encountered in daily life. The molecular structure of the nylon/MAH-grafted polyolefin buried interface and molecular bonding between these two chemically dissimilar layers are thought to play an important role in achieving packaging structures with good adhesion. Here, the molecular bonds present at a nylon/maleic anhydride (MAH)-grafted polyethylene buried interface were systematically examined in situ for the first time using sum frequency generation (SFG) vibrational spectroscopy. The carbonyl stretching frequency region of the SFG spectra of a nylon/MAH-grafted polyethylene buried interface showed the presence of hydrolyzed MAH groups grafted to the polyethylene chain and very low levels of unreacted MAH enriched at the buried interface. The ability of SFG to detect these molecular species at the buried interface yields important understanding of the interfacial molecular structure and provides the basis for subsequent in situ studies of the bonding reaction between the grafted MAH and nylon directly at the interface. This understanding may guide the design of multilayer films with improved properties such as enhanced adhesion between polymer layers. The approach used in this study is general and is applicable to study the molecular characteristics of other buried interfaces of significance, such as buried interfaces involving polymers in solar cells, polymer semiconductors, and batteries. Nylon impact modification is another area of interest where the interaction between the MAH-grafted elastomer and the continuous phase of nylon is important.