1
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Buzi F, Kreka K, Santiso J, Rapenne L, Sha Z, Douglas JO, Chiabrera F, Morata A, Burriel M, Skinner S, Bernadet L, Baiutti F, Tarancón A. A Self-Assembled Multiphasic Thin Film as an Oxygen Electrode for Enhanced Durability in Reversible Solid Oxide Cells. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024; 16:43462-43473. [PMID: 39109991 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.4c06290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/23/2024]
Abstract
The implementation of nanocomposite materials as electrode layers represents a potential turning point for next-generation of solid oxide cells in order to reduce the use of critical raw materials. However, the substitution of bulk electrode materials by thin films is still under debate especially due to the uncertainty about their performance and stability under operando conditions, which restricts their use in real applications. In this work, we propose a multiphase nanocomposite characterized by a highly disordered microstructure and high cationic intermixing as a result from thin-film self-assembly of a perovskite-based mixed ionic-electronic conductor (lanthanum strontium cobaltite) and a fluorite-based pure ionic conductor (samarium-doped ceria) as an oxygen electrode for reversible solid oxide cells. Electrochemical characterization shows remarkable oxygen reduction reaction (fuel cell mode) and oxygen evolution activity (electrolysis mode) in comparison with state-of-the-art bulk electrodes, combined with outstanding long-term stability at operational temperatures of 700 °C. The disordered nanostructure was implemented as a standalone oxygen electrode on commercial anode-supported cells, resulting in high electrical output in fuel cell and electrolysis mode for active layer thicknesses of only 200 nm (>95% decrease in critical raw materials with respect to conventional cathodes). The cell was operated for over 300 h in fuel cell mode displaying excellent stability. Our findings unlock the hidden potential of advanced thin-film technologies for obtaining high-performance disordered electrodes based on nanocomposite self-assembly combining long durability and minimized use of critical raw materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fjorelo Buzi
- Department of Advanced Materials for Energy, Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC), Barcelona 08930, Spain
| | - Kosova Kreka
- Department of Advanced Materials for Energy, Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC), Barcelona 08930, Spain
| | - Jose Santiso
- Catalonia Institute for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), CSIC and BIST, Campus de la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Barcelona, Bellaterra 08193, Spain
| | - Laetitia Rapenne
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, LMGP, Grenoble 38000, France
| | - Zijie Sha
- Department of Materials, Imperial College London, Exhibition Road, London SW7, U.K
| | - James O Douglas
- Department of Materials, Imperial College London, Exhibition Road, London SW7, U.K
| | - Francesco Chiabrera
- Department of Advanced Materials for Energy, Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC), Barcelona 08930, Spain
| | - Alex Morata
- Department of Advanced Materials for Energy, Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC), Barcelona 08930, Spain
| | - Monica Burriel
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, LMGP, Grenoble 38000, France
| | - Stephen Skinner
- Department of Materials, Imperial College London, Exhibition Road, London SW7, U.K
| | - Lucile Bernadet
- Department of Advanced Materials for Energy, Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC), Barcelona 08930, Spain
| | - Federico Baiutti
- Department of Advanced Materials for Energy, Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC), Barcelona 08930, Spain
- Department of Materials Chemistry, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, Ljubljana SI-1000, Slovenia
| | - Albert Tarancón
- Department of Advanced Materials for Energy, Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC), Barcelona 08930, Spain
- Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Passeig LlRuís Companys 23, Barcelona 08010, Spain
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2
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Koohfar S, Ghasemi M, Hafen T, Dimitrakopoulos G, Kim D, Pike J, Elangovan S, Gomez ED, Yildiz B. Improvement of oxygen reduction activity and stability on a perovskite oxide surface by electrochemical potential. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7203. [PMID: 37938236 PMCID: PMC10632449 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-42462-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 11/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The instability of the surface chemistry in transition metal oxide perovskites is the main factor hindering the long-term durability of oxygen electrodes in solid oxide electrochemical cells. The instability of surface chemistry is mainly due to the segregation of A-site dopants from the lattice to the surface. Here we report that cathodic potential can remarkably improve the stability in oxygen reduction reaction and electrochemical activity, by decomposing the near-surface region of the perovskite phase in a porous electrode made of La1-xSrxCo1-xFexO3 mixed with Sm0.2Ce0.8O1.9. Our approach combines X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and secondary ion mass spectrometry for surface and sub-surface analysis. Formation of Ruddlesden-Popper phase is accompanied by suppression of the A-site dopant segregation, and exsolution of catalytically active Co particles onto the surface. These findings reveal the chemical and structural elements that maintain an active surface for oxygen reduction, and the cathodic potential is one way to generate these desirable chemistries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanaz Koohfar
- Laboratory for Electrochemical Interfaces, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Nuclear Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Masoud Ghasemi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | | | - Georgios Dimitrakopoulos
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Dongha Kim
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Jenna Pike
- OxEon Energy, LLC, North Salt Lake, UT, USA
| | | | - Enrique D Gomez
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Bilge Yildiz
- Laboratory for Electrochemical Interfaces, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Department of Nuclear Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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3
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Chiara A, Raimondi G, Merkle R, Maier J, Bordenca CV, Pipitone C, Longo A, Giannici F. Interface Diffusion and Compatibility of (Ba,La)FeO 3-δ Perovskite Electrodes in Contact with Barium Zirconate and Ceria. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:50225-50236. [PMID: 37862611 PMCID: PMC10623510 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c13013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/22/2023]
Abstract
Ba1-xLaxFeO3-δ perovskites (BLF) capable of conducting electrons, protons, and oxygen ions are promising oxygen electrodes for efficient solid oxide cells (fuel cells or electrolyzers), an integral part of prospected large-scale power-to-gas energy storage systems. We investigated the compatibility of BLF with lanthanum content between 5 and 50%, in contact with oxide-ion-conducting Ce0.8Gd0.2O2-δ and proton-conducting BaZr0.825Y0.175O3-δ electrolytes, annealing the electrode-electrolyte bilayers at high temperature to simulate thermal stresses of fabrication and prolonged operation. By employing both bulk X-ray diffraction and synchrotron X-ray microspectroscopy, we present a space-resolved picture of the interaction between electrode and electrolyte as what concerns cation interdiffusion, exsolution, and phase stability. We found that the phase stability of BLF in contact with other phases is correlated with the Goldschmidt tolerance factor, in turn determined by the La/Ba ratio, and appropriate doping strategies with oversized cations (Zn2+, Y3+) could improve structural stability. While extensive reactivity and/or interdiffusion was often observed, we put forward that most products of interfacial reactions, including proton-conducting Ba(Ce,Gd)O3-δ and mixed-conducting (Ba,La)(Fe,Zr,Y)O3-δ, may not be very detrimental for practical cell operation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Chiara
- Dipartimento
di Fisica e Chimica, Università di
Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Giulia Raimondi
- Max
Planck Institute for Solid State Research, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Rotraut Merkle
- Max
Planck Institute for Solid State Research, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Joachim Maier
- Max
Planck Institute for Solid State Research, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | | | - Candida Pipitone
- Dipartimento
di Fisica e Chimica, Università di
Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Alessandro Longo
- Istituto
per lo Studio dei Materiali Nanostrutturati (ISMN)-CNR, UOS Palermo, 90146 Palermo, Italy
- European
Synchrotron Radiation Facility, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Francesco Giannici
- Dipartimento
di Fisica e Chimica, Università di
Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy
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4
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Sha Z, Kerherve G, van Spronsen MA, Wilson GE, Kilner JA, Held G, Skinner SJ. Studying Surface Chemistry of Mixed Conducting Perovskite Oxide Electrodes with Synchrotron-Based Soft X-rays. THE JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. C, NANOMATERIALS AND INTERFACES 2023; 127:20325-20336. [PMID: 37876977 PMCID: PMC10591506 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.3c04278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/26/2023]
Abstract
A fundamental understanding of the electrochemical reactions and surface chemistry at the solid-gas interface in situ and operando is critical for electrode materials applied in electrochemical and catalytic applications. Here, the surface reactions and surface composition of a model of mixed ionic and electronic conducting (MIEC) perovskite oxide, (La0.8Sr0.2)0.95Cr0.5Fe0.5O3-δ (LSCrF8255), were investigated in situ using synchrotron-based near-ambient pressure (AP) X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and near-edge X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy (NEXAFS). The measurements were conducted with a surface temperature of 500 °C under 1 mbar of dry oxygen and water vapor, to reflect the implementation of the materials for oxygen reduction/evolution and H2O electrolysis in the applications such as solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) and electrolyzers. Our direct experimental results demonstrate that, rather than the transition metal (TM) cations, the surface lattice oxygen is the significant redox active species under both dry oxygen and water vapor environments. It was proven that the electron holes formed in dry oxygen have a strong oxygen character. Meanwhile, a relatively higher concentration of surface oxygen vacancies was observed on the sample measured in water vapor. We further showed that in water vapor, the adsorption and dissociation of H2O onto the perovskite surface were through forming hydroxyl groups. In addition, the concentration of Sr surface species was found to increase over time in dry oxygen due to Sr surface segregation, with the presence of oxygen holes on the surface serving as an additional driving force. Comparatively, less Sr contents were observed on the sample in water vapor, which could be due to the volatility of Sr(OH)2. A secondary phase was also observed, which exhibited an enrichment in B-site cations, particularly in Fe and relatively in Cr, and a deficiency in A-site cation, notably in La and relatively in Sr. The findings and methodology of this study allow for the quantification of surface defect chemistry and surface composition evolution, providing crucial understanding and design guidelines in the electrocatalytic activity and durability of electrodes for efficient conversions of energy and fuels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zijie Sha
- Department
of Materials, Imperial College London, Exhibition Road, London SW7 2AZ, U.K.
| | - Gwilherm Kerherve
- Department
of Materials, Imperial College London, Exhibition Road, London SW7 2AZ, U.K.
| | | | - George E. Wilson
- Department
of Materials, Imperial College London, Exhibition Road, London SW7 2AZ, U.K.
| | - John A. Kilner
- Department
of Materials, Imperial College London, Exhibition Road, London SW7 2AZ, U.K.
| | - Georg Held
- Diamond
Light Source Ltd, Didcot OX11 0DE, U.K.
| | - Stephen J. Skinner
- Department
of Materials, Imperial College London, Exhibition Road, London SW7 2AZ, U.K.
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5
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Luongo G, Bork AH, Abdala PM, Wu YH, Kountoupi E, Donat F, Müller CR. Activation in the rate of oxygen release of Sr 0.8Ca 0.2FeO 3-δ through removal of secondary surface species with thermal treatment in a CO 2-free atmosphere. JOURNAL OF MATERIALS CHEMISTRY. A 2023; 11:6530-6542. [PMID: 36968616 PMCID: PMC10029991 DOI: 10.1039/d2ta09102j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
We elucidate the underlying cause of a commonly observed increase in the rate of oxygen release of an oxygen carrier with redox cycling (here specifically for the perovskite Sr0.8Ca0.2FeO3-δ ) in chemical looping applications. This phenomenon is often referred to as activation. To this end we probe the evolution of the structure and surface elemental composition of the oxygen carrier with redox cycling by both textural and morphological characterization techniques (N2 physisorption, microscopy, X-ray powder diffraction and X-ray absorption spectroscopy). We observe no appreciable changes in the surface area, pore volume and morphology of the sample during the activation period. X-ray powder diffraction and X-ray absorption spectroscopy analysis (at the Fe and Sr K-edges) of the material before and after redox cycles do not show significant differences, implying that the bulk (average and local) structure of the perovskite is largely unaltered upon cycling. The analysis of the surface of the perovskite via X-ray photoelectron and in situ Raman spectroscopy indicates the presence of surface carbonate species in the as-synthesized sample (due to its exposure to air). Yet, such surface carbonates are absent in the activated material, pointing to the removal of carbonates during cycling (in a CO2-free atmosphere) as the underlying cause behind activation. Importantly, after activation and a re-exposure to CO2, surface carbonates re-form and yield a deactivation of the perovskite oxygen carrier, which is often overlooked when using such materials at relatively low temperature (≤500 °C) in chemical looping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giancarlo Luongo
- Laboratory of Energy Science and Engineering, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich Leonhardstrasse 21 8092 Zürich Switzerland
| | - Alexander H Bork
- Laboratory of Energy Science and Engineering, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich Leonhardstrasse 21 8092 Zürich Switzerland
| | - Paula M Abdala
- Laboratory of Energy Science and Engineering, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich Leonhardstrasse 21 8092 Zürich Switzerland
| | - Yi-Hsuan Wu
- Laboratory of Energy Science and Engineering, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich Leonhardstrasse 21 8092 Zürich Switzerland
| | - Evgenia Kountoupi
- Laboratory of Energy Science and Engineering, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich Leonhardstrasse 21 8092 Zürich Switzerland
| | - Felix Donat
- Laboratory of Energy Science and Engineering, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich Leonhardstrasse 21 8092 Zürich Switzerland
| | - Christoph R Müller
- Laboratory of Energy Science and Engineering, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich Leonhardstrasse 21 8092 Zürich Switzerland
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6
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Wang J, Kalaev D, Yang J, Waluyo I, Hunt A, Sadowski JT, Tuller HL, Yildiz B. Fast Surface Oxygen Release Kinetics Accelerate Nanoparticle Exsolution in Perovskite Oxides. J Am Chem Soc 2023; 145:1714-1727. [PMID: 36627834 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c10256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Exsolution is a recent advancement for fabricating oxide-supported metal nanoparticle catalysts via phase precipitation out of a host oxide. A fundamental understanding and control of the exsolution kinetics are needed to engineer exsolved nanoparticles to obtain higher catalytic activity toward clean energy and fuel conversion. Since oxygen release via oxygen vacancy formation in the host oxide is behind oxide reduction and metal exsolution, we hypothesize that the kinetics of metal exsolution should depend on the kinetics of oxygen release, in addition to the kinetics of metal cation diffusion. Here, we probe the surface exsolution kinetics both experimentally and theoretically using thin-film perovskite SrTi0.65Fe0.35O3 (STF) as a model system. We quantitatively demonstrated that in this system the surface oxygen release governs the metal nanoparticle exsolution kinetics. As a result, by increasing the oxygen release rate in STF, either by reducing the sample thickness or by increasing the surface reactivity, one can effectively accelerate the Fe0 exsolution kinetics. Fast oxygen release kinetics in STF not only shortened the prereduction time prior to the exsolution onset, but also increased the total quantity of exsolved Fe0 over time, which agrees well with the predictions from our analytical kinetic modeling. The consistency between the results obtained from in situ experiments and analytical modeling provides a predictive capability for tailoring exsolution, and highlights the importance of engineering host oxide surface oxygen release kinetics in designing exsolved nanocatalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiayue Wang
- Department of Nuclear Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts02139, United States
| | - Dmitri Kalaev
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts02139, United States
| | - Jing Yang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts02139, United States
| | - Iradwikanari Waluyo
- National Synchrotron Light Source II, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York11973, United States
| | - Adrian Hunt
- National Synchrotron Light Source II, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York11973, United States
| | - Jerzy T Sadowski
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York11973, United States
| | - Harry L Tuller
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts02139, United States
| | - Bilge Yildiz
- Department of Nuclear Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts02139, United States.,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts02139, United States
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7
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Li L, Tao D, Zhao Q, Fu S, Chen C, Tian M, Shi J, Ma M, He C. Strengthening chlorobenzene catalytic degradation rate and selectivity over LaxSr1-xMnO3±δ by anchoring interfacial oxygen vacancy. Sep Purif Technol 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2023.123199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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8
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Kim D, Dimitrakopoulos G, Yildiz B. Controlling the Size of Au Nanoparticles on Reducible Oxides with the Electrochemical Potential. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:21926-21938. [PMID: 36441525 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c08422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Controlling the size of Au nanoparticles (NPs) and their interaction with the oxide support is important for their catalytic performance in chemical reactions, such as CO oxidation and water-gas shift. It is known that the oxygen vacancies at the surface of support oxides form strong chemical bonding with the Au NPs and inhibit their coarsening and deactivation. The resulting Au/oxygen vacancy interface also acts as an active site for oxidation reactions. Hence, small Au NPs are needed to increase the density of the Au/oxide interface. A dynamic way to control the size of the Au NPs on an oxide support is desirable but has been missing in the field. Here, we demonstrate an electrochemical method to control the size of the Au NPs by controlling the surface oxygen vacancy concentration of the support oxide. Oxides with different reducibilities, La0.8Ca0.2MnO3±δ and Pr0.1Ce0.9O2-δ, are used as model support oxides. By applying the electrochemical potential, we achieve a wide range of effective oxygen pressures, pO2 (10-37-1014 atm), in the support oxides. Applying the cathodic potential creates a high concentration of oxygen vacancies and forms finely distributed Au NPs with sizes of 7-13 nm at 700-770 °C in 10 min, while the anodic potential oxidizes the surface and increases the size of the Au NPs. The onset cathodic potential required to create small Au NPs depends strongly on the reducibility of the support oxide. The Au NPs did not undergo sintering even at 700-770 °C under the cathodic potential and also were stable in catalytically relevant conditions without potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongha Kim
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Georgios Dimitrakopoulos
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Bilge Yildiz
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States.,Department of Nuclear Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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9
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Punga L, Abbassi A, Toma M, Alupului T, Doroftei C, Dobromir M, Timpu D, Doroftei F, Hrostea L, Rusu GG, Razouk A, Iacomi F. Studies of the Structure and Optical Properties of BaSrMgWO 6 Thin Films Deposited by a Spin-Coating Method. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 12:2756. [PMID: 36014622 PMCID: PMC9414463 DOI: 10.3390/nano12162756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2022] [Revised: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Highly transparent thin films with the chemical formula BaSrMgWO6 were deposited by spin coating using a solution of nitrates of Ba, Sr, and Mg and ammonium paratungstate in dimethylformamide with a Ba:Sr:Mg:W ratio = 1:1:1:1. XRD, SEM, EDX, and XPS investigations evidenced that annealing at 800 °C for 1 h results in an amorphous structure having a precipitate on its surface, and that supplementary annealing at 850 °C for 45 min forms a nanocrystalline structure and dissolves a portion of the precipitates. A textured double perovskite cubic structure (61.9%) was found, decorated with tetragonal and cubic impurity phases (12.7%), such as BaO2, SrO2, and MgO, and an under-stoichiometric phase (24.4%) with the chemical formula Ba2-(x+y) SrxMgyWO5. From transmittance measurements, the values of the optical band gap were estimated for the amorphous (Egdir = 5.21 eV, Egind = 3.85 eV) and nanocrystalline (Egdir = 4.69 eV, Egind = 3.77 eV) phases. The presence of a lattice disorder was indicated by the high Urbach energy values and weak absorption tail energies. A decrease in their values was observed and attributed to the crystallization process, lattice strain diminution, and cation redistribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciana Punga
- Faculty of Physics, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, 11 Carol I Blvd., 700506 Iasi, Romania
| | - Abderrahman Abbassi
- LRPSI, Polydisciplinary Faculty of Beni-Mellal, Sultan Moulay Slimane University, Mghila BP 592, Beni-Mellal 23000, Morocco
| | - Mihaela Toma
- Faculty of Physics, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, 11 Carol I Blvd., 700506 Iasi, Romania
| | - Teodor Alupului
- Faculty of Physics, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, 11 Carol I Blvd., 700506 Iasi, Romania
| | - Corneliu Doroftei
- CERNESIM-ICI, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, 11 Carol I Blvd., 700506 Iasi, Romania
| | - Marius Dobromir
- Department of Exact and Natural Sciences, Institute of Interdisciplinary Research, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, 11 Carol I Blvd., 700506 Iasi, Romania
| | - Daniel Timpu
- Petru Poni Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, 1A Grigore Ghica Voda Alley, 700487 Iasi, Romania
| | - Florica Doroftei
- Petru Poni Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, 1A Grigore Ghica Voda Alley, 700487 Iasi, Romania
| | - Laura Hrostea
- RAMTECH, Institute of Interdisciplinary Research, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, 11 Carol I Blvd., 700506 Iasi, Romania
| | - George G. Rusu
- Faculty of Physics, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, 11 Carol I Blvd., 700506 Iasi, Romania
| | - Abdelati Razouk
- LGEM, FST, Sultan Moulay Slimane University, BP 523, Beni-Mellal 23000, Morocco
| | - Felicia Iacomi
- Faculty of Physics, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, 11 Carol I Blvd., 700506 Iasi, Romania
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10
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Türk H, Götsch T, Schmidt FP, Hammud A, Ivanov D, de Haart L(B, Vinke I, Eichel RA, Schlögl R, Reuter K, Knop-Gericke A, Lunkenbein T, Scheurer C. Sr Surface Enrichment in Solid Oxide Cells ‐ Approaching the Limits of EDX Analysis by Multivariate Statistical Analysis and Simulations. ChemCatChem 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.202200300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Türk
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft Theory Department Faradayweg 4-6 14195 Berlin GERMANY
| | - Thomas Götsch
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft Department of Inorganic Chemistry GERMANY
| | - Franz-Philipp Schmidt
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft Department of Inorganic Chemistry GERMANY
| | - Adnan Hammud
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft Department of Inorganic Chemistry GERMANY
| | - Danail Ivanov
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft Department of Inorganic Chemistry GERMANY
| | - L.G.J. (Bert) de Haart
- Julich Research Centre Institute of Energy and Climate Research Helmholtz-Institute Münster: Ionics in Energy Storage: Forschungszentrum Julich Helmholtz-Institut Munster Institut fur Energie- und Klimaforschung Elektrochemische Verfahrenstechnik Fundamental Electrochemistry (IEK-9) GERMANY
| | - Izaak Vinke
- Julich Research Centre Institute of Energy and Climate Research Helmholtz-Institute Münster: Ionics in Energy Storage: Forschungszentrum Julich Helmholtz-Institut Munster Institut fur Energie- und Klimaforschung Elektrochemische Verfahrenstechnik Fundamental Electrochemistry (IEK-9) GERMANY
| | - Rüdiger-A Eichel
- Julich Research Centre Institute of Energy and Climate Research Helmholtz-Institute Münster: Ionics in Energy Storage: Forschungszentrum Julich Helmholtz-Institut Munster Institut fur Energie- und Klimaforschung Elektrochemische Verfahrenstechnik Fundamental Electrochemistry (IEK-9) GERMANY
| | - Robert Schlögl
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft Department of Inorganic Chemistry GERMANY
| | - Karsten Reuter
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft Theory Department GERMANY
| | - Axel Knop-Gericke
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft Fundamental Electrochemistry (IEK-9) GERMANY
| | - Thomas Lunkenbein
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft Department of Inorganic Chemistry GERMANY
| | - Christoph Scheurer
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft Theory Faradayweg 4-6 14195 Berlin GERMANY
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11
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Hu J, Zhang L, Song H, Lv Y. Evaluating the Band Gaps of Semiconductors by Cataluminescence. Anal Chem 2021; 93:14454-14461. [PMID: 34648272 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c02913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A rapid and efficient methodology for the evaluation of band gaps of semiconductors is highly desirable to analyze and assess the intrinsic properties and extending application scopes of semiconductor materials. Here, the negative correlation of the cataluminescence (CTL) signal in the presence of H2S and the band gap of Aurivillius-type perovskite oxide Bi4+nFenTi3O12+3n (n = 1-4) was confirmed, where the H2S-induced CTL signal acts as a probe to evaluate the band gaps of semiconductor materials. The related mechanism shows that the thermal energy obtained by heating makes the electrons in the valence band more easily excite into the conduction band of a narrower band gap material and further promotes electron transfer between the gaseous compounds and semiconductor materials, causing acceleration of the catalytic oxide process. In addition, the extensibility was further verified by exploring the layered perovskite containing other insertion structures, including Bi4+nConTi3O12+3n (n = 1-4), Bi5NiTi3O15, and Bi5MnTi3O15, which was also consistent with the results characterized by UV diffuse reflectance spectroscopy. The established CTL probe for band gap evaluation shows rapid response, is simple to operate, and is of low cost, which is expected to become an innovative alternative to the conventional band gap assessment approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaxi Hu
- Analytical & Testing Center, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Lichun Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry & Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610064, China
| | - Hongjie Song
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry & Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610064, China
| | - Yi Lv
- Analytical & Testing Center, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China.,Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry & Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610064, China
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Tian Y, He S, Liu Y, Yang C, Yang R, Li Y, Wang X, Li W, Chi B, Pu J. Comprehensive understanding of alkaline-earth elements effects on electrocatalytic activity and stability of LaFe0.8Ni0.2O3 electrode for high-temperature CO2 electrolysis. J CO2 UTIL 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcou.2021.101727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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13
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Zhou M, Liu J, Ye Y, Sun X, Chen H, Zhou D, Yin Y, Zhang N, Ling Y, Ciucci F, Chen Y. Enhancing the Intrinsic Activity and Stability of Perovskite Cobaltite at Elevated Temperature Through Surface Stress. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2021; 17:e2104144. [PMID: 34605170 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202104144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Revised: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Perovskite-based oxides attract great attention as catalysts for energy and environmental devices. Nanostructure engineering is demonstrated as an effective approach for improving the catalytic activity of the materials. The mechanism for the enhancement, nevertheless, is still not fully understood. In this study, it is demonstrated that compressive strain can be introduced into freestanding perovskite cobaltite La0.8 Sr0.2 CoO3- δ (LSC) nanofibers with sufficient small size. Crystal structure analysis suggests that the LSC fiber is characterized by compressive strain along the ab plane and less distorted CoO6 octahedron compared to the bulk powder sample. Accompanied by such structural changes, the nanofiber shows significantly higher oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) activity and better stability at elevated temperature, which is attributed to the higher oxygen vacancy concentration and suppressed Sr segregation in the LSC nanofibers. First-principle calculations further suggest that the compressive strain in LSC nanofibers effectively shortens the distance between the Co 3d and O 2p band center and lowers the oxygen vacancy formation energy. The results clarify the critical role of surface stress in determining the intrinsic activity of perovskite oxide nanomaterials. The results of this work can help guide the design of highly active and durable perovskite catalysts via nanostructure engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengzhen Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510000, China
| | - Jiapeng Liu
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, 999077, China
| | - Yongjian Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510000, China
| | - Xiang Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510000, China
| | - Huijun Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510000, China
| | - Deng Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Functional Materials for Informatics, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200050, China
| | - Yimei Yin
- Institute of Electrochemical & Energy Technology, Department of Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Nian Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Functional Materials for Informatics, Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200050, China
| | - Yihan Ling
- School of Materials Science and Physics, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou, 221116, PR China
| | - Francesco Ciucci
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, 999077, China
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, 999077, China
| | - Yan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510000, China
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A high-entropy manganite in an ordered nanocomposite for long-term application in solid oxide cells. Nat Commun 2021; 12:2660. [PMID: 33976209 PMCID: PMC8113253 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-22916-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The implementation of nano-engineered composite oxides opens up the way towards the development of a novel class of functional materials with enhanced electrochemical properties. Here we report on the realization of vertically aligned nanocomposites of lanthanum strontium manganite and doped ceria with straight applicability as functional layers in high-temperature energy conversion devices. By a detailed analysis using complementary state-of-the-art techniques, which include atom-probe tomography combined with oxygen isotopic exchange, we assess the local structural and electrochemical functionalities and we allow direct observation of local fast oxygen diffusion pathways. The resulting ordered mesostructure, which is characterized by a coherent, dense array of vertical interfaces, shows high electrochemically activity and suppressed dopant segregation. The latter is ascribed to spontaneous cationic intermixing enabling lattice stabilization, according to density functional theory calculations. This work highlights the relevance of local disorder and long-range arrangements for functional oxides nano-engineering and introduces an advanced method for the local analysis of mass transport phenomena.
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Li Z, Li M, Zhu Z. Perovskite Cathode Materials for Low-Temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells: Fundamentals to Optimization. ELECTROCHEM ENERGY R 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s41918-021-00098-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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16
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Bliem R, Kim D, Wang J, Crumlin EJ, Yildiz B. Hf Deposition Stabilizes the Surface Chemistry of Perovskite Manganite Oxide. THE JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. C, NANOMATERIALS AND INTERFACES 2021; 125:3346-3354. [PMID: 33815648 PMCID: PMC8016110 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.0c09707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Revised: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Stable composition and catalytic activity of surfaces are among the key requirements for materials employed in energy storage and conversion devices, such as solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs). Perovskite oxides that serve as cathode in SOFCs suffer from segregation of the aliovalent substitutional cations and the formation of an inert, non-conductive phase at the surface. Here, we demonstrate that the surface of the state-of-the-art SOFC cathode material La0.8Sr0.2MnO3 (LSM) is stabilized against the segregation of Sr at high temperature by submonolayer coverages of Hf. The Hf is vapor-deposited onto the LSM thin film surface by e-beam evaporation. Using in situ near-ambient pressure X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (NAP-XPS), we analyze the surface composition of LSM thin films. Half the LSM surface was kept as-prepared, and half was Hf-modified, for a direct comparison of untreated and Hf-treated regions on the same sample. The formation of a binary SrOx surface species is quantified as descriptor for surface degradation. The onset of Sr segregation is observed at 450 °C on the bare LSM, followed by a substantial advance at 550 °C. Hf-treated regions of the same LSM surface exhibit significantly less Sr surface segregation at 450-550 °C. We interpret this stabilization imparted by Hf to arise from the suppression of the electrostatic attraction of Sr2+ cations to surface oxygen vacancies. Doping the surface layer with Hf, that has a higher affinity to oxygen, reduces this attraction by decreasing the surface oxygen vacancy concentration. In doing so, the use of physical vapor deposition highlights the direct role of the metal species in this system and excludes artifacts that could be introduced via chemical routes. The present work demonstrates this stabilizing effect of Hf on the surface of LSM, broadening the relevance of our prior findings on surface metal doping of other perovskite oxides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roland Bliem
- Department
of Nuclear Science and Engineering, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Dongha Kim
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Jiayue Wang
- Department
of Nuclear Science and Engineering, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Ethan J. Crumlin
- Advanced
Light Source, Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory, One Cyclotron
Road, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Bilge Yildiz
- Department
of Nuclear Science and Engineering, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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17
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Hess F, Yildiz B. Precipitation of dopants on acceptor-doped LaMnO 3±δ revealed by defect chemistry from first principles. J Chem Phys 2021; 154:064702. [PMID: 33588549 DOI: 10.1063/5.0035691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Perovskite oxides degrade at elevated temperatures while precipitating dopant-rich particles on the surface. A knowledge-based improvement of surface stability requires a fundamental and quantitative understanding of the dopant precipitation mechanism on these materials. We propose that dopant precipitation is a consequence of the variation of dopant solubility between calcination and operating conditions in solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) and electrolyzer cells (SOECs). To study dopant precipitation, we use 20% (D = Ca, Sr, Ba)-doped LaMnO3+δ (LDM20) as a model system. We employ a defect model taking input from density functional theory calculations. The defect model considers the equilibration of LDM20 with a reservoir consisting of dopant oxide (DO), peroxide (DO2), and O2 in the gas phase. The equilibrated non-stoichiometry of the A-site and B-site as a function of temperature, T, and oxygen partial pressure, p(O2), reveals three regimes for LDM20: A-site deficient (oxidizing conditions), A-site rich (atmospheric conditions), and near-stoichiometric (reducing conditions). Assuming an initial A/B non-stoichiometry, we compute the dopant precipitation boundaries in a p-T phase diagram. Our model predicts precipitation both under reducing (DO) and under highly oxidizing conditions (DO2). We found precipitation under anodic, SOEC conditions to be promoted by large dopant size, while under cathodic, SOFC conditions precipitation is promoted by initial A-site excess. The main driving forces for precipitation are oxygen uptake by the condensed phase under oxidizing conditions and oxygen release assisted by B-site vacancies under reducing conditions. Possible strategies for mitigating dopant precipitation under in electrolytic and fuel cell conditions are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Hess
- Department of Nuclear Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| | - Bilge Yildiz
- Department of Nuclear Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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Lindenthal L, Ruh T, Rameshan R, Summerer H, Nenning A, Herzig C, Löffler S, Limbeck A, Opitz AK, Blaha P, Rameshan C. Ca-doped rare earth perovskite materials for tailored exsolution of metal nanoparticles. ACTA CRYSTALLOGRAPHICA SECTION B, STRUCTURAL SCIENCE, CRYSTAL ENGINEERING AND MATERIALS 2020; 76:1055-1070. [PMID: 33289717 DOI: 10.1107/s2052520620013475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Perovskite-type oxide materials (nominal composition ABO3) are a very versatile class of materials, and their properties are tuneable by varying and doping A- and B-site cations. When the B-site contains easily reducible cations (e.g. Fe, Co or Ni), these can exsolve under reducing conditions and form metallic nanoparticles on the surface. This process is very interesting as a novel route for the preparation of catalysts, since oxide surfaces decorated with finely dispersed catalytically active (often metallic) nanoparticles are a key requirement for excellent catalyst performance. Five doped perovskites, namely, La0.9Ca0.1FeO3-δ, La0.6Ca0.4FeO3-δ, Nd0.9Ca0.1FeO3-δ, Nd0.6Ca0.4FeO3-δ and Nd0.6Ca0.4Fe0.9Co0.1O3-δ, have been synthesized and characterized by experimental and theoretical methods with respect to their crystal structures, electronic properties, morphology and exsolution behaviour. All are capable of exsolving Fe and/or Co. Special emphasis has been placed on the influence of the A-site elemental composition on structure and exsolution capability. Using Nd instead of La increased structural distortions and, at the same time, hindered exsolution. Increasing the amount of Ca doping also increased distortions and additionally changed the Fe oxidation states, resulting in exsolution being shifted to higher temperatures as well. Using the easily reducible element Co as the B-site dopant significantly facilitated the exsolution process and led to much smaller and homogeneously distributed exsolved particles. Therefore, the Co-doped perovskite is a promising material for applications in catalysis, even more so as Co is catalytically a highly active element. The results show that fine-tuning of the perovskite composition will allow tailored exsolution of nanoparticles, which can be used for highly sophisticated catalyst design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenz Lindenthal
- Institute of Materials Chemistry, TU Wien, Getreidmarkt 9/165, Vienna 1060, Austria
| | - Thomas Ruh
- Institute of Materials Chemistry, TU Wien, Getreidmarkt 9/165, Vienna 1060, Austria
| | - Raffael Rameshan
- Institute of Materials Chemistry, TU Wien, Getreidmarkt 9/165, Vienna 1060, Austria
| | - Harald Summerer
- Institute of Materials Chemistry, TU Wien, Getreidmarkt 9/165, Vienna 1060, Austria
| | - Andreas Nenning
- Institute of Chemical Technologies and Analytics, TU Wien, Getreidmarkt 9/164, Vienna 1060, Austria
| | - Christopher Herzig
- Institute of Chemical Technologies and Analytics, TU Wien, Getreidmarkt 9/164, Vienna 1060, Austria
| | - Stefan Löffler
- USTEM, TU Wien, Wiedner Hauptstraße 8-10/E057-02, Vienna 1060, Austria
| | - Andreas Limbeck
- Institute of Chemical Technologies and Analytics, TU Wien, Getreidmarkt 9/164, Vienna 1060, Austria
| | - Alexander Karl Opitz
- Institute of Chemical Technologies and Analytics, TU Wien, Getreidmarkt 9/164, Vienna 1060, Austria
| | - Peter Blaha
- Institute of Materials Chemistry, TU Wien, Getreidmarkt 9/165, Vienna 1060, Austria
| | - Christoph Rameshan
- Institute of Materials Chemistry, TU Wien, Getreidmarkt 9/165, Vienna 1060, Austria
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Choi M, Kim S, Paik J, Lee W. Enhanced Cr tolerance of perovskite oxide via Gd0.1Ce0.9O2 surface modifications. KOREAN J CHEM ENG 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11814-020-0562-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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