Unifying Perspective of the Ultrafast Photodynamics of Orange Carotenoid Proteins from Synechocystis: Peril of High-Power Excitation, Existence of Different S* States, and Influence of Tagging

Functionalized cyanostilbene-based nano-AIEgens: multipoint binding interactions for improved sensing of gallic acid in real-life food samples

Cyano-substituted stilbene (CSS) derivatives have been synthesized that can form luminescent nanoscopic assemblies in an aqueous medium. The optical properties of such materials, as governed by the relative ratios of their monomer and aggregated forms, are found to be susceptible to pH and temperature of the medium. The compound with boronic acid attached at the terminal positions shows a turn-on fluorescence response (LOD: 15.4 ppb) with gallic acid (GA). The mechanistic studies indicate that the 1,2-diol unit of GA is involved in ester formation with the boronic acid residue, while the carboxylic end engages in hydrogen bonding interaction with the nitrile unit. Such multi-point binding interaction provides better selectivity over other structurally similar analytes. Moreover, the distinct aggregation properties of such boronate ester derivatives are responsible for the GA-specific optical response. The sensory system has been utilized for the determination of the levels of GA derivatives in tea (green tea and black tea) and various fruit (mango, orange, guava, pomegranate) extracts. In all cases, the estimated values of GAE were found to be in the same range reported by others. Finally, low-cost, chemically-modified paper strips have been designed for rapid, on-location detection of GA.

Raman Vibrational Signatures of Excited States of Echinenone in the Orange Carotenoid Protein (OCP) and Implications for its Photoactivation Mechanism

In this study, the vibrational characteristics of optically excited echinenone in various solvents and the Orange Carotenoid Protein (OCP) in red and orange states are systematically investigated through steady-state and time-resolved spectroscopy techniques. Time-resolved experiments, employing both Transient Absorption (TA) and Femtosecond Stimulated Raman Spectroscopy (FSRS), reveal different states in the OCP photoactivation process. The time-resolved studies indicate vibrational signatures of exited states positioned above the S1 state during the initial 140 fs of carotenoid evolution in OCP, an absence of a vibrational signature for the relaxed S1 state of echinenone in OCP, and more robust signatures of a highly excited ground state (GS) in OCP. Differences in S1 state vibration population signatures between OCP and solvents are attributed to distinct conformations of echinenone in OCP and hydrogen bonds at the keto group forming a short-lived intramolecular charge transfer (ICT) state. The vibrational dynamics of the hot GS in OCP show a more pronounced red shift of ground state CC vibration compared to echinenone in solvents, thus suggesting an unusually hot form of GS. The study proposes a hypothesis for the photoactivation mechanism of OCP, emphasizing the high level of vibrational excitation in longitudinal stretching modes as a driving force. In conclusion, the comparison of vibrational signatures reveals unique dynamics of energy dissipation in OCP, providing insights into the photoactivation mechanism and highlighting the impact of the protein environment on carotenoid behavior. The study underscores the importance of vibrational analysis in understanding the intricate processes involved in early phase OCP photoactivation.

The Orange Carotenoid Protein Triggers Cyanobacterial Photoprotection by Quenching Bilins via a Structural Switch of Its Carotenoid

Cyanobacteria were the first microorganisms that released oxygen into the atmosphere billions of years ago. To do it safely under intense sunlight, they developed strategies that prevent photooxidation in the photosynthetic membrane, by regulating the light-harvesting activity of their antenna complexes-the phycobilisomes-via the orange-carotenoid protein (OCP). This water-soluble protein interacts with the phycobilisomes and triggers nonphotochemical quenching (NPQ), a mechanism that safely dissipates overexcitation in the membrane. To date, the mechanism of action of OCP in performing NPQ is unknown. In this work, we performed ultrafast spectroscopy on a minimal NPQ system composed of the active domain of OCP bound to the phycobilisome core. The use of this system allowed us to disentangle the signal of the carotenoid from that of the bilins. Our results demonstrate that the binding to the phycobilisomes modifies the structure of the ketocarotenoid associated with OCP. We show that this molecular switch activates NPQ, by enabling excitation-energy transfer from the antenna pigments to the ketocarotenoid.

The Carbonyl Group in β2 of the Carotenoid Tunes the Photocycle Kinetics in Orange Carotenoid Protein

Adaptation to rapid environmental changes is crucial for maintaining optimal photosynthetic efficiency and is ultimately key to the survival of all photosynthetic organisms. Like most of them, cyanobacteria protect their photosynthetic apparatus against rapidly increasing light intensities by nonphotochemical quenching (NPQ). In cyanobacteria, NPQ is controlled by Orange Carotenoid Protein (OCP) photocycle. OCP is the only known photoreceptor that uses carotenoid for its light activation. How carotenoid drives and controls this unique photoactivation process is still unknown. However, understanding and potentially controlling the OCP photocycle may open up new possibilities for improving photosynthetic biomass. Here we investigate the effect of the carbonyl group in the β2 ring of the carotenoid on the OCP photocycle. We report microsecond to minute OCP light activation kinetics and Arrhenius plots of the two OCP forms: Canthaxanthin-bound OCP (OCPCAN) and echinenone-bound OCP (OCPECH). The difference between the two carotenoids is the presence of a carbonyl group in the β2-ring located in the N-terminal domain of the protein. A combination of temperature-dependent spectroscopy, flash photolysis, and pump-probe transient absorption allows us to report the previously unresolved OCP intermediate associated primarily with the absorption bleach (OCPB). OCPB dominates the photokinetics in the μs to subms time range for OCPCAN and in the μs to ms range for OCPECH. We show that in OCPCAN the OCP photocycle steps are always faster than in OCPECH: from 2 to almost 20 times depending on the step. These results suggest that the presence of the carbonyl group in the β2-ring of the carotenoid accelerates the OCP photocycle.

Photoactivation of the orange carotenoid protein requires two light-driven reactions mediated by a metastable monomeric intermediate

The orange carotenoid protein (OCP) functions as a sensor of the ambient light intensity and as a quencher of bilin excitons when it binds to the core of the cyanobacterial phycobilisome. We show herein that the photoactivation mechanism that converts the resting, orange-colored state, OCPO, to the active red-colored state, OCPR, requires a sequence of two reactions, each requiring absorption of a single photon by an intrinsic ketocarotenoid chromophore. Global analysis of absorption spectra recorded during continuous illumination of OCPO preparations from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 detects the reversible formation of a metastable intermediate, OCPI, in which the ketocarotenoid canthaxanthin exhibits an absorption spectrum with a partial red shift and a broadened vibronic structure compared to that of the OCPO state. While the dark recovery from OCPR to OCPI is a first-order, unimolecular reaction, the subsequent conversion of OCPI to the resting OCPO state is bimolecular, involving association of two OCPO monomers to form the dark-stable OCPO dimer aggregate. These results indicate that photodissociation of the OCPO dimer to form the monomeric OCPO intermediate is the first step in the photoactivation mechanism. Formation of the OCPO monomer from the dimer increases the mean value and broadens the distribution of the solvent-accessible surface area of the canthaxanthin chromophore measured in molecular dynamics trajectories at 300 K. The second step in the photoactivation mechanism is initiated by absorption of a second photon, by canthaxanthin in the OCPO monomer, which obtains the fully red-shifted and broadened absorption spectrum detected in the OCPR product state owing to displacement of the C-terminal domain and the translocation of canthaxanthin more than 12 Å into the N-terminal domain. Both steps in the photoactivation reaction of OCP are likely to involve changes in the structure of the C-terminal domain elicited by excited-state conformational motions of the ketocarotenoid.

How orange carotenoid protein controls the excited state dynamics of canthaxanthin

Orange Carotenoid Protein (OCP) is a ketocarotenoid-binding protein essential for photoprotection in cyanobacteria. The main steps of the photoactivated conversion which converts OCP from its resting state to the active one have been extensively investigated. However, the initial photochemical event in the ketocarotenoid which triggers the large structural changes finally leading to the active state is still not understood. Here we employ QM/MM surface hopping nonadiabatic dynamics to investigate the excited-state decay of canthaxanthin in OCP, both in the ultrafast S2 to S1 internal conversion and the slower decay leading back to the ground state. For the former step we show the involvement of an additional excited state, which in the literature has been often named the SX state, and we characterize its nature. For the latter step, we reveal an excited state decay characterized by multiple timescales, which are related to the ground-state conformational heterogeneity of the ketocarotenoid. We assigned the slowly decaying population to the so-called S* state. Finally, we identify a minor decay pathway involving double-bond photoisomerization, which could be the initial trigger to photoactivation of OCP.

Structure-function-dynamics relationships in the peculiar Planktothrix PCC7805 OCP1: Impact of his-tagging and carotenoid type

The orange carotenoid protein (OCP) is a photoactive protein involved in cyanobacterial photoprotection. Here, we report on the functional, spectral and structural characteristics of the peculiar Planktothrix PCC7805 OCP (Plankto-OCP). We show that this OCP variant is characterized by higher photoactivation and recovery rates, and a stronger energy-quenching activity, compared to other OCP studied thus far. We characterize the effect of the functionalizing carotenoid and of his-tagging on these reactions, and identify the time scales on which these modifications affect photoactivation. The presence of a his-tag at the C-terminus has a large influence on photoactivation, thermal recovery and PBS-fluorescence quenching, and likewise for the nature of the carotenoid that additionally affects the yield and characteristics of excited states and the ns-s dynamics of photoactivated OCP. By solving the structures of Plankto-OCP in the ECN- and CAN-functionalized states, each in two closely-related crystal forms, we further unveil the molecular breathing motions that animate Plankto-OCP at the monomer and dimer levels. We finally discuss the structural changes that could explain the peculiar properties of Plankto-OCP.

Is orange carotenoid protein photoactivation a single-photon process?

In all published photoactivation mechanisms of orange carotenoid protein (OCP), absorption of a single photon by the orange dark state starts a cascade of red-shifted OCP ground-state intermediates that subsequently decay within hundreds of milliseconds, resulting in the formation of the final red form OCP^R, which is the biologically active form that plays a key role in cyanobacteria photoprotection. A major challenge in deducing the photoactivation mechanism is to create a uniform description explaining both single-pulse excitation experiments, involving single-photon absorption, and continuous light irradiation experiments, where the red-shifted OCP intermediate species may undergo re-excitation. We thus investigated photoactivation of Synechocystis OCP using stationary irradiation light with a biologically relevant photon flux density coupled with nanosecond laser pulse excitation. The kinetics of photoactivation upon continuous and nanosecond pulse irradiation light show that the OCP^R formation quantum yield increases with photon flux density; thus, a simple single-photon model cannot describe the data recorded for OCP in vitro. The results strongly suggest a consecutive absorption of two photons involving a red intermediate with ≈100 millisecond lifetime. This intermediate is required in the photoactivation mechanism and formation of the red active form OCP^R.

Oligomerization processes limit photoactivation and recovery of the Orange Carotenoid Protein

The Orange Carotenoid Protein (OCP) is a photoactive protein involved in cyanobacterial photoprotection, by quenching of the excess of light harvested energy. The photoactivation mechanism remains elusive, in part due to absence of data pertaining to the timescales over which protein structural changes take place. It also remains unclear whether or not oligomerization of the dark-adapted and light-adapted OCP could play a role in the regulation of its energy quenching activity. Here, we probed photo-induced structural changes in OCP by a combination of static and time-resolved X-ray scattering and steady-state and transient optical spectroscopy in the visible range. Our results suggest that oligomerization partakes in regulation of the OCP photocycle, with different oligomers slowing down the overall thermal recovery of the dark-adapted state of OCP. They furthermore reveal that upon non-photoproductive excitation, a numbed-state forms, which remains in a non-photoexcitable structural state for at least ∼0.5 μs after absorption of a first photon.