1
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Ara H1 peanut allergen detection using a labelled electrochemical aptasensor based on GO-COOH@bimetallic composite platform. Food Chem 2023; 400:134074. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.134074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Revised: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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2
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Manny E, La Vieille S, Barrere V, Théolier J, Godefroy SB. Peanut and hazelnut occurrence as allergens in foodstuffs with precautionary allergen labeling in Canada. NPJ Sci Food 2021; 5:11. [PMID: 33976231 PMCID: PMC8113233 DOI: 10.1038/s41538-021-00093-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Precautionary allergen labeling (PAL) is widely used by food industries. Occurrence studies revealed that few analyzed products contained the allergen(s) present in the statement, but little is known in Canada. To improve manufacturing practices and better manage allergen cross-contamination, occurrence data is needed to determine the exposure of allergic individuals eating those products. Samples were analyzed for peanuts (n = 871) and hazelnuts (n = 863) using ELISA methods. Within samples analyzed for peanuts, 72% had a PAL (n = 628), 1% had peanuts as a minor ingredient (n = 9) and 27% were claimed “peanut-free” (n = 234). Most hazelnut samples had a PAL for tree nuts/hazelnuts (94%; n = 807) with 6% claimed “nut-free” (n = 56). Peanuts and hazelnuts were found in 4% (0.6–28.1 ppm) and 9% (0.4–2167 ppm) of all samples, respectively. Chocolates were mostly impacted; they should be treated apart from other foods and used in risk assessments scenarios to improve manufacturing practices, reducing unnecessary PAL use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilie Manny
- Food Risk Analysis and Regulatory Excellence Platform (PARERA), Institute of Nutrition and Functional Foods and Department of Food Science, Université Laval, Québec, Canada.
| | - Sébastien La Vieille
- Food Risk Analysis and Regulatory Excellence Platform (PARERA), Institute of Nutrition and Functional Foods and Department of Food Science, Université Laval, Québec, Canada.,Food Directorate, Health Canada, 251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Virginie Barrere
- Food Risk Analysis and Regulatory Excellence Platform (PARERA), Institute of Nutrition and Functional Foods and Department of Food Science, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
| | - Jérémie Théolier
- Food Risk Analysis and Regulatory Excellence Platform (PARERA), Institute of Nutrition and Functional Foods and Department of Food Science, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
| | - Samuel Benrejeb Godefroy
- Food Risk Analysis and Regulatory Excellence Platform (PARERA), Institute of Nutrition and Functional Foods and Department of Food Science, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
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3
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Holzhauser T, Johnson P, Hindley JP, O'Connor G, Chan CH, Costa J, Fæste CK, Hirst BJ, Lambertini F, Miani M, Robert MC, Röder M, Ronsmans S, Bugyi Z, Tömösközi S, Flanagan SD. Are current analytical methods suitable to verify VITAL® 2.0/3.0 allergen reference doses for EU allergens in foods? Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 145:111709. [PMID: 32866515 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Revised: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Food allergy affects up to 6% of Europeans. Allergen identification is important for the risk assessment and management of the inadvertent presence of allergens in foods. The VITAL® initiative for voluntary incidental trace allergen labeling suggests protein reference doses, based on clinical reactivity in food challenge studies, at or below which voluntary labelling is unnecessary. Here, we investigated if current analytical methodology could verify the published VITAL® 2.0 doses, that were available during this analysis, in serving sizes between 5 and 500 g. Available data on published and commercial ELISA, PCR and mass spectrometry methods, especially for the detection of peanuts, soy, hazelnut, wheat, cow's milk and hen's egg were reviewed in detail. Limit of detection, quantitative capability, matrix compatibility, and specificity were assessed. Implications by the recently published VITAL® 3.0 doses were also considered. We conclude that available analytical methods are capable of reasonably robust detection of peanut, soy, hazelnut and wheat allergens for levels at or below the VITAL® 2.0 and also 3.0 doses, with some methods even capable of achieving this in a large 500 g serving size. Cow's milk and hen's egg are more problematic, largely due to matrix/processing incompatibility. An unmet need remains for harmonized reporting units, available reference materials, and method ring-trials to enable validation and the provision of comparable measurement results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Holzhauser
- Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, Division of Allergology, D-63225, Langen, Germany.
| | - Philip Johnson
- University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Department of Food Science and Technology, FARRP, Rm 266 Food Innovation Center, 1901 N 21 Street, PO Box 886207, Lincoln, NE, 68588-6207, USA.
| | | | - Gavin O'Connor
- Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, Bundesallee 100, 38116, Braunschweig, Germany.
| | | | - Joana Costa
- REQUIMTE-LAQV, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Christiane K Fæste
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Toxicology Research Group, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, 0106, Oslo, Norway.
| | | | | | - Michela Miani
- International Life Sciences Institute, European Branch, ILSI Europe a.i.s.b.l., Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Marie-Claude Robert
- Nestlé Research, Institute of Food Safety and Analytical Sciences, Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Martin Röder
- Ifp Institut für Produktqualität GmbH, Wagner-Régeny-Str. 8, 12489, Berlin, Germany.
| | | | - Zsuzsanna Bugyi
- Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Department of Applied Biotechnology and Food Science, Research Group of Cereal Science and Food Quality, Budapest, Hungary.
| | - Sándor Tömösközi
- Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Department of Applied Biotechnology and Food Science, Research Group of Cereal Science and Food Quality, Budapest, Hungary.
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4
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Rost J, Muralidharan S, Lee NA. A label-free shotgun proteomics analysis of macadamia nut. Food Res Int 2020; 129:108838. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2019.108838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2019] [Revised: 11/12/2019] [Accepted: 11/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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5
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Nhari RR, Hanish I, Mokhtar NK, Hamid M, El Sheikha A. Authentication approach using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of porcine substances. QUALITY ASSURANCE AND SAFETY OF CROPS & FOODS 2019. [DOI: 10.3920/qas2018.1415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- R.M.H. Raja Nhari
- Laboratory of Halal Science Research, Halal Products Research Institute, Putra Infoport, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
| | - I. Hanish
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
| | - N.F. Khairil Mokhtar
- Laboratory of Halal Science Research, Halal Products Research Institute, Putra Infoport, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
| | - M. Hamid
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
| | - A.F. El Sheikha
- Jiangxi Agricultural University, 1101 Zhimin Road, Nanchang 330045, China
- Bioengineering and Technological Research Centre for Edible and Medicinal Fungi, Jiangxi Agricultural University, 1101 Zhimin Road, Nanchang 330045, China
- Jiangxi Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Fungal Resources, Jiangxi Agricultural University, 1101 Zhimin Road, Nanchang 330045, China
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main St. West, Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 4K1, Canada
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, Minufiya University, 32511 Shibin El Kom, Minufiya Government, Egypt
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6
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Zhao Y, Sun X, Marquis CP, Lee NA. Development of a sensitive sandwich ELISA specific to 2S albumin (Ana o 3) as a stable protein marker for cashew nut residue detection in pre-packaged food products. Food Control 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2018.09.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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7
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Speranskaya AS, Krinitsina AA, Shipulin GA, Khafizov KF, Logacheva MD. High-Throughput Sequencing for the Authentication of Food Products: Problems and Perspectives. RUSS J GENET+ 2018. [DOI: 10.1134/s1022795418090132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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8
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Bernevic B, El-Khatib AH, Jakubowski N, Weller MG. Online immunocapture ICP-MS for the determination of the metalloprotein ceruloplasmin in human serum. BMC Res Notes 2018; 11:213. [PMID: 29609633 PMCID: PMC5879926 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-018-3324-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2018] [Accepted: 03/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective The human copper-protein ceruloplasmin (Cp) is the major copper-containing protein in the human body. The accurate determination of Cp is mandatory for the reliable diagnosis of several diseases. However, the analysis of Cp has proven to be difficult. The aim of our work was a proof of concept for the determination of a metalloprotein-based on online immunocapture ICP-MS. The immuno-affinity step is responsible for the enrichment and isolation of the analyte from serum, whereas the compound-independent quantitation with ICP-MS delivers the sensitivity, precision, and large dynamic range. Off-line ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) was used in parallel to confirm the elution profile of the analyte with a structure-selective method. The total protein elution was observed with the 32S mass trace. The ICP-MS signals were normalized on a 59Co signal. Results The human copper-protein Cp could be selectively determined. This was shown with pure Cp and with a sample of human serum. The good correlation with off-line ELISA shows that Cp could be captured and eluted selectively from the anti-Cp affinity column and subsequently determined by the copper signal of ICP-MS. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13104-018-3324-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bogdan Bernevic
- Division 1.5 Protein Analysis, Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Richard-Willstätter-Strasse 11, 12489, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ahmed H El-Khatib
- Division 1.1 Inorganic Trace Analysis, Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Richard-Willstätter-Strasse 11, 12489, Berlin, Germany.,Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Ain Shams University, Organization of African Unity Street, Abassia, Cairo, 11566, Egypt
| | - Norbert Jakubowski
- Division 1.1 Inorganic Trace Analysis, Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Richard-Willstätter-Strasse 11, 12489, Berlin, Germany
| | - Michael G Weller
- Division 1.5 Protein Analysis, Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Richard-Willstätter-Strasse 11, 12489, Berlin, Germany.
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Alves RC, Barroso MF, González-García MB, Oliveira MBPP, Delerue-Matos C. New Trends in Food Allergens Detection: Toward Biosensing Strategies. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2017; 56:2304-19. [PMID: 25779935 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2013.831026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Food allergens are a real threat to sensitized individuals. Although food labeling is crucial to provide information to consumers with food allergies, accidental exposure to allergenic proteins may result from undeclared allergenic substances by means of food adulteration, fraud or uncontrolled cross-contamination. Allergens detection in foodstuffs can be a very hard task, due to their presence usually in trace amounts, together with the natural interference of the matrix. Methods for allergens analysis can be mainly divided in two large groups: the immunological assays and the DNA-based ones. Mass spectrometry has also been used as a confirmatory tool. Recently, biosensors appeared as innovative, sensitive, selective, environmentally friendly, cheaper and fast techniques (especially when automated and/or miniaturized), able to effectively replace the classical methodologies. In this review, we present the advances in the field of food allergens detection toward the biosensing strategies and discuss the challenges and future perspectives of this technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita C Alves
- a REQUIMTE, LAQV/Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Instituto Politécnico do Porto , Porto , Portugal.,b REQUIMTE, LAQV/Departamento de Ciências Químicas , Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto , Porto , Portugal
| | - M Fátima Barroso
- a REQUIMTE, LAQV/Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Instituto Politécnico do Porto , Porto , Portugal.,b REQUIMTE, LAQV/Departamento de Ciências Químicas , Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto , Porto , Portugal
| | | | - M Beatriz P P Oliveira
- b REQUIMTE, LAQV/Departamento de Ciências Químicas , Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto , Porto , Portugal
| | - Cristina Delerue-Matos
- a REQUIMTE, LAQV/Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Instituto Politécnico do Porto , Porto , Portugal
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10
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Sharma GM, Khuda SE, Parker CH, Eischeid AC, Pereira M. Detection of Allergen Markers in Food: Analytical Methods. Food Saf (Tokyo) 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/9781119160588.ch4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
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11
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Montserrat M, Sanz D, Juan T, Herrero A, Sánchez L, Calvo M, Pérez MD. Detection of peanut (Arachis hypogaea) allergens in processed foods by immunoassay: Influence of selected target protein and ELISA format applied. Food Control 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.01.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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12
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Choi JW, Kim GJ, Lee S, Kim J, deMello AJ, Chang SI. A droplet-based fluorescence polarization immunoassay (dFPIA) platform for rapid and quantitative analysis of biomarkers. Biosens Bioelectron 2015; 67:497-502. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2014.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2014] [Revised: 08/30/2014] [Accepted: 09/04/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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13
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Peng J, Song S, Liu L, Kuang H, Xu C. Development of Sandwich ELISA and Immunochromatographic Strip for the Detection of Peanut Allergen Ara h 2. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-015-0163-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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14
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Costa J, Mafra I, Carrapatoso I, Oliveira MBPP. Hazelnut Allergens: Molecular Characterization, Detection, and Clinical Relevance. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2015; 56:2579-2605. [DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2013.826173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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15
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Deckwart M, Carstens C, Webber-Witt M, Schäfer V, Eichhorn L, Schröter F, Fischer M, Brockow K, Christmann M, Paschke-Kratzin A. Impact of wine manufacturing practice on the occurrence of fining agents with allergenic potential. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2014; 31:1805-17. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2014.963700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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16
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Deckwart M, Carstens C, Webber-Witt M, Schäfer V, Eichhorn L, Kang S, Fischer M, Brockow K, Christmann M, Paschke-Kratzin A. Development of a sensitive ELISA for the detection of casein-containing fining agents in red and white wines. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2014; 62:6803-6812. [PMID: 24960632 DOI: 10.1021/jf5006098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Fining of wine with proteinogenic fining agents such as casein from cow's milk is a traditional and commonly used technique all over the world. Casein and other proteins from cow's milk are well-known food allergens, which pose a risk for allergic consumers. Temporary regulations exempting the labeling of milk and products thereof in wine expired. Since July 1, 2012, these fining agents have to be declared on the wine label under Regulation (EU) No. 579/2012 in conjunction to article 120g of Regulation (EU) No. 1234/2007 if exceeding the threshold of 0.25 mg/L allergenic protein. The aim of the presented study was to develop sensitive ELISA methods for the detection of casein in white and red wines and to investigate the risk of allergenic residues in fined wines. In this context it was shown that the used substance for calibration is highly relevant. Casein wine fining agents of different commercial producers were investigated by LDS-PAGE and immunoblot. In addition to casein, they contain other milk proteins, which are potentially allergic and therefore have to be incorporated in the development of antibodies for an ELISA method to be set up. An indirect ELISA for the investigation of white wine was developed. The LOD is 0.1 mg/L. For red wine the LOD is 0.2 mg/L in an indirect sandwich ELISA setup. The LOD of the indirect sandwich ELISA for white wine depends on the calibration standard. It is 0.1 mg/L for the fining agent casein and 0.01 mg/L for casein from a chemical trader. It is also shown that the use of different technological procedures during winemaking leads to no detectable amounts of casein in various wine samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Deckwart
- Institute for Food Chemistry, Hamburg School of Food Science, University of Hamburg , Grindelallee 117, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
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17
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Chemiluminescence microarrays in analytical chemistry: a critical review. Anal Bioanal Chem 2014; 406:5589-612. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-014-7968-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2014] [Revised: 05/14/2014] [Accepted: 06/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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18
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Survey of undeclared allergenic pistachio (Pistacia vera) in commercial foods by hydrolysis probe real-time PCR. Food Control 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.10.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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19
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Costa J, Ansari P, Mafra I, Oliveira MBPP, Baumgartner S. Assessing hazelnut allergens by protein- and DNA-based approaches: LC-MS/MS, ELISA and real-time PCR. Anal Bioanal Chem 2014; 406:2581-90. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-014-7679-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2013] [Revised: 01/28/2014] [Accepted: 02/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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López-Calleja IM, de la Cruz S, Pegels N, González I, García T, Martín R. High resolution TaqMan real-time PCR approach to detect hazelnut DNA encoding for ITS rDNA in foods. Food Chem 2013; 141:1872-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.05.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2012] [Revised: 12/14/2012] [Accepted: 05/02/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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21
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Cucu T, Jacxsens L, De Meulenaer B. Analysis to support allergen risk management: Which way to go? JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2013; 61:5624-5633. [PMID: 23323855 DOI: 10.1021/jf303337z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Food allergy represents an important food safety issue because of the potential lethal effects; the only effective treatment is the complete removal of the allergen involved from the diet. However, due to the growing complexity of food formulations and food processing, foods may be unintentionally contaminated via allergen-containing ingredients or cross-contamination. This affects not only consumers' well-being but also food producers and competent authorities involved in inspecting and auditing food companies. To address these issues, the food industry and control agencies rely on available analytical methods to quantify the amount of a particular allergic commodity in a food and thus to decide upon its safety. However, no "gold standard methods" exist for the quantitative detection of food allergens. Nowadays mostly receptor-based methods and in particular commercial kits are used in routine analysis. However, upon evaluation of their performances, commercial assays proved often to be unreliable in processed foods, attributed to the chemical changes in proteins that affect the molecular recognition with the receptor used. Unfortunately, the analytical outcome of other methods, among which are chromatographic combined with mass spectrometric techniques as well as DNA-based methods, seem to be affected in a comparable way by food processing. Several strategies can be employed to improve the quantitative analysis of allergens in foods. Nevertheless, issues related to extractability and matrix effects remain a permanent challenge. In view of the presented results, it is clear that the food industry needs to continue to make extra efforts to provide accurate labeling and to reduce the contamination with allergens to an acceptable level through the use of allergen risk management on a company level, which needs to be supported inevitably by a tailor-validated extraction and detection method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Cucu
- NutriFOODchem Unit (member of Food2Know), Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Ghent University , Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
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22
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López-Calleja IM, de la Cruz S, Pegels N, González I, García T, Martín R. Development of a real time PCR assay for detection of allergenic trace amounts of peanut (Arachis hypogaea) in processed foods. Food Control 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2012.09.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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23
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Kotoura S, Murakami-Yamaguchi Y, Kizu K, Nakamura M, Fuchu H, Miake K, Sugiyama M, Narita H. Establishment of a sandwich ELISA for the determination of beef content in processed foods by using monoclonal antibodies to myoglobin. FOOD AGR IMMUNOL 2012. [DOI: 10.1080/09540105.2011.624176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022] Open
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24
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Rapid Monitoring of Dipropyl Phthalate in Food Samples Using a Chemiluminescent Enzyme Immunoassay. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-011-9346-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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25
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Trashin SA, Cucu T, Devreese B, Adriaens A, De Meulenaer B. Development of a highly sensitive and robust Cor a 9 specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of hazelnut traces. Anal Chim Acta 2011; 708:116-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2011.09.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2011] [Revised: 08/24/2011] [Accepted: 09/29/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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26
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Rudolf J, Ansari P, Kern C, Ludwig T, Baumgartner S. Effects of different extraction buffers on peanut protein detectability and lateral flow device (LFD) performance. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2011; 29:1-11. [PMID: 22043826 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2011.619151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
The accidental uptake of peanuts can cause severe health reactions in allergic individuals. Reliable determination of traces of peanuts in food products is required to support correct labelling and therefore minimise consumers' risk. The immunoanalytical detectability of potentially allergenic peanut proteins is dependent on previous heat treatment, the extraction capacity of the applied buffer and the specificity of the antibody. In this study a lateral flow device (LFD) for the detection of peanut protein was developed and the capacity of 30 different buffers to extract proteins from mildly and strongly roasted peanut samples as well as their influence on the test strip performance were investigated. Most of the tested buffers showed good extraction capacity for putative Ara h 1 from mildly roasted peanuts. Protein extraction from dark-roasted samples required denaturing additives, which were proven to be incompatible with LFD performance. High-pH buffers increased the protein yield but inhibited signal generation on the test strip. Overall, the best results were achieved using neutral phosphate buffers but equal detectability of differently altered proteins due to food processing cannot be assured yet for immunoanalytical methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Rudolf
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Rapid Test Systems for Allergenic Food Contaminants, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
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27
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Bergerová E, Brežná B, Kuchta T. A novel method with improved sensitivity for the detection of peanuts based upon single-tube nested real-time polymerase chain reaction. Eur Food Res Technol 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s00217-011-1484-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Cucu T, Platteau C, Taverniers I, Devreese B, de Loose M, de Meulenaer B. ELISA detection of hazelnut proteins: effect of protein glycation in the presence or absence of wheat proteins. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2010; 28:1-10. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2010.535026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- T. Cucu
- a Department of Food Safety and Food Quality , Research Group Food Chemistry and Human Nutrition, Ghent University , Ghent , Belgium
- c Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Laboratory for Protein Biochemistry and Biomolecular Engineering , Ghent University , Ghent , Belgium
| | - C. Platteau
- a Department of Food Safety and Food Quality , Research Group Food Chemistry and Human Nutrition, Ghent University , Ghent , Belgium
- b Flemish Government, Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit , Merelbeke , Belgium
| | - I. Taverniers
- b Flemish Government, Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit , Merelbeke , Belgium
| | - B. Devreese
- c Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Laboratory for Protein Biochemistry and Biomolecular Engineering , Ghent University , Ghent , Belgium
| | - M. de Loose
- b Flemish Government, Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit , Merelbeke , Belgium
- d Department of Molecular Genetics , Ghent University , Ghent , Belgium
| | - B. de Meulenaer
- a Department of Food Safety and Food Quality , Research Group Food Chemistry and Human Nutrition, Ghent University , Ghent , Belgium
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30
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Development and validation of a sandwich ELISA for the determination of potentially allergenic sesame (Sesamum indicum) in food. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010; 398:1735-45. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-010-4069-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2010] [Revised: 07/25/2010] [Accepted: 07/26/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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31
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Comparison and Functional Evaluation of the Allergenicity of Different Hazelnut (Corylus avellana) Protein Extracts. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-010-9147-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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32
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Detection of hazelnuts and almonds using commercial ELISA test kits. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010; 396:1939-45. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-009-3424-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2009] [Revised: 12/11/2009] [Accepted: 12/16/2009] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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33
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Bremer MGEG, Smits NGE, Haasnoot W. Biosensor immunoassay for traces of hazelnut protein in olive oil. Anal Bioanal Chem 2009; 395:119-26. [PMID: 19263041 PMCID: PMC2724632 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-009-2720-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2008] [Revised: 02/09/2009] [Accepted: 02/17/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The fraudulent addition of hazelnut oil to more expensive olive oil not only causes economical loss but may also result in problems for allergic individuals as they may inadvertently be exposed to potentially allergenic hazelnut proteins. To improve consumer safety, a rapid and sensitive direct biosensor immunoassay, based on a highly specific monoclonal antibody, was developed to detect the presence of hazelnut proteins in olive oils. The sample preparation was easy (extraction with buffer); the assay time was fast (4.5 min only) and the limit of detection was low (0.08 microg/g of hazelnut proteins in olive oil). Recoveries obtained with an olive oil mixed with different amounts of a hazelnut protein containing hazelnut oil varied between 93% and 109%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria G E G Bremer
- RIKILT-Institute of Food Safety, Wageningen UR, P.O. Box 230, 6700 AE Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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34
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Schöringhumer K, Redl G, Cichna-Markl M. Development and validation of a duplex real-time PCR method to simultaneously detect potentially allergenic sesame and hazelnut in food. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2009; 57:2126-2134. [PMID: 19292461 DOI: 10.1021/jf8033336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The paper describes the development and validation of a duplex real-time PCR method allowing the simultaneous detection of traces of potentially allergenic sesame and hazelnut in food. For the detection of sesame and hazelnut, the genes coding for two major allergenic proteins, Ses i 1 and Cor a 1, were selected. The duplex real-time PCR assay did not show any cross-reactivity with 25 common food ingredients from sesame and/or hazelnut containing foods. Analysis of serially diluted sesame/hazelnut DNA resulted in good linearity up to a dilution of 1:10000 (corresponding to 10 pg microL(-1) or 50 pg). Sesame and hazelnut could be detected in blank whole meal cookies which had been spiked with 0.005% sesame and 0.005% hazelnut. The applicability of the real-time PCR assay for determining sesame and hazelnut in different food matrices was investigated by analyzing 30 commercial foodstuffs comprising salty snacks, cookies, chocolates, creams, mueslis and muesli bars.
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35
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Zhang X, Geng P, Liu H, Teng Y, Liu Y, Wang Q, Zhang W, Jin L, Jiang L. Development of an electrochemical immunoassay for rapid detection of E. coli using anodic stripping voltammetry based on Cu@Au nanoparticles as antibody labels. Biosens Bioelectron 2008; 24:2155-9. [PMID: 19124236 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2008.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2008] [Revised: 11/12/2008] [Accepted: 11/17/2008] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
A sensitive electrochemical immunoassay for rapid detection of Escherichia coli has been developed by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) based on core-shell Cu@Au nanoparticles (NPs) as anti-E. coli antibody labels. The characteristics of Cu@Au NPs before and after binding with antibody were confirmed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). After Cu@Au-labeled antibody reacted with the immobilized E. coli on Polystyrene (PS)-modified ITO chip, Cu@Au NPs were dissolved by oxidation to the metal ionic forms, and the released Cu(2+) ions were determined at GC/Nafion/Hg modified electrode by ASV. The utilization of GC/Nafion/Hg modified electrode could enhance the sensitivity for Cu(2+) detection with a concentration as low as 9.0 x 10(-12)mol/L. Since Cu@Au NPs labels were only present when antibody reacted with E. coli, the amount of Cu(2+) directly reflected the number of E. coli. The technique could detect E. coli with a detection limit of 30CFU/mL and the overall analysis could be completed in 2h. By introducing a pre-enrichment step, a concentration of 3CFU/10mL E. coli in surface water was detected by the electrochemical immunoassay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinai Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, PR China
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36
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Affiliation(s)
- Yin Huang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering and Center for Advanced Materials Processing (CAMP), 8 Clarkson Avenue, Clarkson University, Potsdam, New York 13699-5705
| | - Melissa C. Bell
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering and Center for Advanced Materials Processing (CAMP), 8 Clarkson Avenue, Clarkson University, Potsdam, New York 13699-5705
| | - Ian I. Suni
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering and Center for Advanced Materials Processing (CAMP), 8 Clarkson Avenue, Clarkson University, Potsdam, New York 13699-5705
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37
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Asensio L, González I, García T, Martín R. Determination of food authenticity by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Food Control 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2007.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 199] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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38
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Schöringhumer K, Cichna-Markl M. Development of a real-time PCR method to detect potentially allergenic sesame (Sesamum indicum) in food. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2007; 55:10540-10547. [PMID: 18052100 DOI: 10.1021/jf0719407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Recent papers indicate that the prevalence of allergic reactions to sesame (Sesamum indicum) is increasing in European countries. This paper describes the development of a selective real-time PCR method for the detection of sesame in food. The assay did not show any cross-reactivity with 17 common food ingredients. The real-time PCR method was applied to determine sesame in several crackers, salty snacks, biscuits, tahina sesame paste and sesame oil. With the exception of sesame oil, in all of the samples where sesame was declared, sesame was detected by the real-time PCR assay (Ct value<35). In the samples which might contain sesame or where sesame was not listed, sesame could not be detected (Ct value>35).
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Pele M, Brohée M, Anklam E, Van Hengel AJ. Peanut and hazelnut traces in cookies and chocolates: Relationship between analytical results and declaration of food allergens on product labels. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 24:1334-44. [PMID: 17852393 DOI: 10.1080/02652030701458113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Accidental exposure to hazelnut or peanut constitutes a real threat to the health of allergic consumers. Correct information regarding food product ingredients is of paramount importance for the consumer, thereby reducing exposure to food allergens. In this study, 569 cookies and chocolates on the European market were purchased. All products were analysed to determine peanut and hazelnut content, allowing a comparison of the analytical results with information provided on the product label. Compared to cookies, chocolates are more likely to contain undeclared allergens, while, in both food categories, hazelnut traces were detected at higher frequencies than peanut. The presence of a precautionary label was found to be related to a higher frequency of positive test results. The majority of chocolates carrying a precautionary label tested positive for hazelnut, whereas peanut traces were not be detected in 75% of the cookies carrying a precautionary label.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Pele
- European Commission, Directorate General Joint Research Centre, Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements, Retieseweg 111, B-2440 Geel, Belgium
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40
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Scaravelli E, Brohée M, Marchelli R, van Hengel AJ. Development of three real-time PCR assays to detect peanut allergen residue in processed food products. Eur Food Res Technol 2007. [DOI: 10.1007/s00217-007-0797-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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41
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A novel real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method for the detection of hazelnuts in food. Eur Food Res Technol 2007. [DOI: 10.1007/s00217-007-0644-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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42
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Wen HW, Borejsza-Wysocki W, DeCory TR, Durst RA. Peanut Allergy, Peanut Allergens, and Methods for the Detection of Peanut Contamination in Food Products. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2007; 6:47-58. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1541-4337.2007.00017.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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43
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Chassaigne H, Brohée M, Nørgaard JV, van Hengel AJ. Investigation on sequential extraction of peanut allergens for subsequent analysis by ELISA and 2D gel electrophoresis. Food Chem 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.04.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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44
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Barbieri G, Frigeri G. Identification of hidden allergens: Detection of pistachio traces in mortadella. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 23:1260-4. [PMID: 17118868 DOI: 10.1080/02652030600932945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
An analytical method based on the detection of specific DNA was developed and applied to mortadella samples with and without pistachio (Pistacia vera). The method is proposed for the detection of traces of pistachio deriving from previous processes or from accidental contamination, since in predisposed individuals pistachios can cause allergic reactions leading to anaphylactic shock. Three pairs of primers were identified and tested by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) on mortadella samples prepared with pistachio. Accidental contamination was also simulated. The optimized PCR was able to detect the presence of pistachio, even at low concentrations. The primers pair PSTC 1-2 is suggested for unambiguous identification of pistachio in mortadella. The limit of detection for this primers pair was 100 mg kg-1. No interference was observed from other spices or ingredients utilized in the formulation of the mortadella. The method enabled the identification of possible traces of pistachio remaining in the production plant after less than thorough washing.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Barbieri
- Stazione Sperimentale Industria Conserve Analysis, Viale Tanara 31/a Parma, Parma I-43100, Italy.
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45
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Fæste C, Holden L, Plassen C, Almli B. Sensitive time-resolved fluoroimmunoassay for the detection of hazelnut (Corylus avellana) protein traces in food matrices. J Immunol Methods 2006; 314:114-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2006.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2005] [Revised: 06/06/2006] [Accepted: 06/06/2006] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Flinterman AE, Pasmans SG, Hoekstra MO, Meijer Y, van Hoffen E, Knol EF, Hefle SL, Bruijnzeel-Koomen CA, Knulst AC. Determination of no-observed-adverse-effect levels and eliciting doses in a representative group of peanut-sensitized children. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006; 117:448-54. [PMID: 16461147 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2005.11.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2005] [Revised: 09/27/2005] [Accepted: 11/17/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Current labeling practices for allergenic foods like peanut can be inadequate. For future regulatory and industry guidelines, information on no-observed-adverse-effect levels (NOAELs) and eliciting doses (EDs) for allergenic foods is necessary. OBJECTIVE To determine NOAEL and ED in a representative group of peanut-sensitized children, relate these data to history and sensitization, and evaluate the outcome of dietary management. METHODS From an overall eligible group of 96 peanut-sensitized children, a representative group of 27 was evaluated by questionnaires, skin prick test, determination of specific IgE, and double-blind placebo-controlled food challenge (DBPCFC) with peanut according to the international consensus protocol, with 9 doses ranging from 10 microg to 3 g peanut flour. Dietary management was evaluated over a 12-month period. RESULTS Twenty-two children (81%) had a positive DBPCFC. The NOAEL in this group was 1 mg peanut flour, corresponding to 2 mg whole peanut. The ED for subjective symptoms (10 mg to 3 g) was significantly lower than for objective symptoms (100 mg to 3 g; P = .002). Severe reactions occurred only at high doses. EDs were not correlated to previous reactions by history, skin prick test, or specific IgE levels. All patients with a positive DBPCFC were advised to follow a strict diet. During the follow-up period, 10 patients had a less strict diet likely containing traces of peanut. In 3 cases, a mild reaction occurred with food products labeled "may contain peanut." CONCLUSION The NOAEL in a representative group of children with peanut allergy was 2 mg. Dietary compliance in half of this group was inadequate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annebeth E Flinterman
- Department of Dermatology/Allergology, University Medical Center, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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48
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Current awareness in phytochemical analysis. PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS : PCA 2006; 17:63-70. [PMID: 16454478 DOI: 10.1002/pca.880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
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49
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Kiening M, Niessner R, Weller MG. Microplate-based screening methods for the efficient development of sandwich immunoassays. Analyst 2005; 130:1580-8. [PMID: 16284655 DOI: 10.1039/b507794j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The selection of suitable antibodies is a critical step in immunoassay development, since the final assay performance is predetermined by this decision to a large extent. Particularly, the screening for matching pairs in sandwich immunoassays is difficult, if both antibodies are derived from one species or when monoclonal antibodies are only available as cell supernatants. Several microplate-based approaches for in situ labeling of detection antibodies were tested, in order to avoid time consuming purification of antibodies for enzyme conjugate synthesis. We investigated labeling with anti-species antibodies and Fab fragments thereof, labeling with protein G and biotinylation of cell supernatants without prior purification. Antibodies against peanut proteins were used as a model and signal-to-blank ratios were used in all cases as a measure of the antibody pair performance. Amongst the investigated approaches, preincubation of the detection antibody with labeled anti-species antibody turned out to be most suitable under our conditions. Diagrams, showing the performance of all possible antibody combinations, were generated with this method and were compared to results obtained with covalently labeled detection antibodies. Finally, a flowchart is presented, suggesting an efficient strategy for the development of highly sensitive sandwich immunoassays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Kiening
- Institute of Hydrochemistry, Technische Universität München, Marchioninistr. 17, 81377 München, Germany
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