Aqueous extract from Spanish black radish (Raphanus sativus L. Var. niger) induces detoxification enzymes in the HepG2 human hepatoma cell line

Immunomodulatory Effects of an Aqueous Extract of Black Radish on Mouse Macrophages via the TLR2/4-Mediated Signaling Pathway

Here, we determined the immunostimulatory effects of black radish (Raphanus sativus ver niger) hot water extract (BRHE) on a mouse macrophage cell line (RAW 264.7) and mouse peritoneal macrophages. We found that BRHE treatment increased cell proliferation, phagocytic activity, nitric oxide (NO) levels, cytokine production, and reactive oxygen species synthesis. Moreover, BRHE increased the expression of the following immunomodulators in RAW 264.7 cells and peritoneal macrophages: pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α), iNOS, and COX-2. BRHE treatment significantly up-regulated the phosphorylation of components of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), Akt, and STAT3 signaling pathways. Further, the effects of BRHE on macrophages were significantly diminished after the cells were treated with the TLR2 antagonist C29 or the TLR4 antagonist TAK-242. Therefore, BRHE-induced immunostimulatory phenotypes in mouse macrophages were reversed by multiple inhibitors, such as TLR antagonist, MAPK inhibitor, and Akt inhibitor indicating that BRHE induced macrophage activation through the TLR2/4-MAPK-NFκB-Akt-STAT3 signaling pathway. These results indicate that BRHE may serve as a potential immunomodulatory factor or functional food and provide the scientific basis for the comprehensive utilization and evaluation of black radish in future applications.

Plants in Anticancer Drug Discovery: From Molecular Mechanism to Chemoprevention

Cancer is one of the primary causes of mortality globally, and the discovery of new anticancer drugs is the most important need in recent times. Natural products have been recognized as effective in fight against various diseases including cancer for over 50 years. Plants and microbes are the primary and potential sources of natural compounds to fight against cancer. Moreover, researches in the field of plant-based natural compounds have moved towards advanced and molecular level understandings from the last few decades, leading to the development of potent anticancer agents. Also, plants have been accepted as abundant and prosperous sources for the development of novel therapeutic agents for the management and prevention of different cancer types. The high toxicity of some cancer chemotherapy drugs, as well as their unfavorable side effects and drugs resistance, drives up the demand for natural compounds as new anticancer drugs. In this detailed evidence-based mechanistic review, facts and information about various medicinal plants, their bioactive compounds with their potent anticancer activities against different cancers have been gathered, with further approach to represent the molecular mechanism behind the anticancer activity of these plants. This review will be beneficial for investigators/scientists globally involved in the development of natural, safe, effective, and economical therapeutic agents/drugs against various cancers. This might be an important contribution in the field of drug discovery, where drugs can be used alone or in combination to increase the efficacy of newly synthesized drugs.

Phytonutrients and Metabolism Changes in Topped Radish Root and Its Detached Leaves during 1 °C Cold Postharvest Storage

Glucosinolates, lipid-soluble vitamins E and K contents, primary metabolites and plant hormones were analyzed from topped radish root and detached leaf during storage at 1 °C. The topped root was analyzed at 0, 5, 15, 30, and 90 days after storage while the detached leaf was analyzed at 0, 5, 15, 30, and 45 days in an airtight storage atmosphere environment. The results showed that aliphatic glucosinolates were gradually decreased in leaf but not in root. There was a highly significant correlation between tryptophan and 4-methoxyindoleglucobrassicin in both tissues (r = 0.922, n = 10). There was no significant difference in vitamins E and K in leaf and root during storage. Plant hormones partially explained the significantly changed metabolites by tissue and time, which were identified during cold storage. Phenylalanine, lysine, tryptophan, and myo-inositol were the most important biomarkers that explained the difference in leaf and root tissue during cold storage. The most different metabolism between leaf and root tissue was starch and sucrose metabolism. Therefore, different postharvest technology or regimes should be applied to these tissues.

An Overview of Hepatocellular Carcinoma with Emphasis on Dietary Products and Herbal Remedies

The most common principal malignant tumor that accounts for ∼80% of cases of liver cancer across the world is hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). It is a multifacetedillness that is caused by several risk factors and often progresses in the context of underlying cirrhosis. It is tremendously difficult and essential for the screening of novel therapeutic medications to establish HCC preclinical models that are equivalent to clinical diseases settings, i.e., representing the tumor microenvironment of HCC. In the progress of HCC, numerous molecular cascades have been supposed to play a part. Sorafenib is the only drug permitted by the US Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of HCC. Yet because of the increasing resistance to the drug and its toxicity, clinical treatment methods are not completely adequate. Newer treatment therapy options are essential for the management of HCC in patients. Natural compounds can be afforded by the patients with improved results with less toxicity and fewer side effects, among different methods of liver cancer treatment. The treatment and management of HCC with natural drugs and their phytoconstituents are connected to several paths that can prevent the occurrence and progress of HCC in several ways. The present review summarizes the etiology of HCC, molecular pathways, newer therapeutic approaches, natural dietary products, herbal plants and phytoconstituents for HCC treatment.

Inhibitory Effect of Black Radish (Raphanus sativus L. var. niger) Extracts on Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammatory Response in the Mouse Monocyte/Macrophage-Like Cell Line RAW 264.7

Black radish (Raphanus sativus L. var. niger), which is cultivated worldwide, is used in traditional medicine as it aids liver function, gastric secretion, gallbladder function, and gallstone mitigation. In this study, we examined the anti-inflammatory effects of black radish extract (BRE) on the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)- and interleukin (IL)-6-mediated inflammatory responses in the RAW 264.7 cell lines. Our findings show that BRE significantly ameliorated LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO) release and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1β, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and prostaglandin E2. The levels of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and inducible NO synthase (iNOS) in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells were found to be suppressed by BRE. Further, BRE significantly suppressed the LPS-induced expression of mRNAs encoding COX-2, iNOS, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α in a concentration-dependent manner. BRE treatment significantly inhibited Janus kinase 2 (JAK2) and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) phosphorylation in IL-6- and LPS-treated RAW 264.7 cells. In addition, BRE decreased the levels of phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated protein kinases and c-Jun N-terminal kinase under the same conditions. Moreover, BRE induced high nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2) levels and its target gene heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) in the absence of LPS. These data demonstrate that BRE may be beneficial for treating inflammation through selective immunomodulatory effects, which may be mediated by inhibition of the STAT3/JAK2 and activation of the NRF2/HO-1 signal transduction pathways.

Selenium Application During Radish (Raphanus sativus) Plant Development Alters Glucosinolate Metabolic Gene Expression and Results in the Production of 4-(methylseleno)but-3-enyl glucosinolate

Selenium (Se) is an essential micronutrient for human health, entering the diet mainly through the consumption of plant material. Members of the Brassicaceae are Se-accumulators that can accumulate up to 1g Se kg⁻¹ dry weight (DW) from the environment without apparent ill effect. The Brassicaceae also produce glucosinolates (GSLs), sulfur (S)-rich compounds that benefit human health. Radish (Raphanussativus) has a unique GSL profile and is a Se-accumulating species that is part of the human diet as sprouts, greens and roots. In this report we describe the effects of Se-fertilisation on GSL production in radish during five stages of early development (from seed to mature salad greens) and on the transcript abundance of eight genes encoding enzymes involved in GSL metabolism. We tentatively identified (by tandem mass spectrometry) the selenium-containing glucosinolate, 4-(methylseleno)but-3-enyl glucosinolate, with the double bond geometry not resolved. Two related isothiocyanates were tentatively identified by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry as (E/Z?) isomers of 4-(methylseleno)but-3-enyl isothiocyanate. Se fertilisation of mature radish led to the presence of selenoglucosinolates in the seed. While GSL concentration generally reduced during radish development, GSL content was generally not affected by Se fertilisation, aside from the indole GSL, indol-3-ylmethyl glucosinolate, which increased on Se treatment, and the Se-GSLs, which significantly increased during development. The transcript abundance of genes involved in aliphatic GSL biosynthesis declined with Se treatment while that of genes involved in indole GSL biosynthesis tended to increase. APS kinase transcript abundance increased significantly in three of the four developmental stages following Se treatment. The remaining genes investigated were not significantly changed following Se treatment. We hypothesise that increased APS kinase expression in response to Se treatment is part of a general protection mechanism controlling the uptake of S and the production of S-containing compounds such as GSLs. The upregulation of genes encoding enzymes involved in indole GSL biosynthesis and a decrease in those involved in aliphatic GSL biosynthesis may be part of a similar mechanism protecting the plant’s GSL complement whilst limiting the amount of Se-GSLs produced.

Interaction between phytotherapy and oral anticancer agents: prospective study and literature review

Cancer is becoming more prevalent in elderly patient. Due to polypharmacy, older adults with cancer are predisposed to drug-drug interactions. There is also an increasing interest in the use of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM). Thirty to seventy percent of patients with cancer have used CAM. Through pharmaceutical counseling sessions, we can provide advices on herb-drug interactions (HDI). All the patients seen in pharmaceutical counseling sessions were prospectively included. Information was collected during these sessions: prescribed medication (oral anticancer agents (OAA) and other drugs), CAM (phytotherapy especially), and use of over-the-counter (OTC) drugs. If pharmacist considered an interaction or an intervention clinically relevant, the oncologist was notified. Then, a literature review was realized to identify the potential HDI (no interactions, precautions for use, contraindication). Among 201 pharmacist counseling sessions, it resulted in 104 interventions related to 46 HDI, 28 drug-drug interactions and 30 others (wrong dosage, omission…). To determine HDI, we review 73 medicinal plants which are used by our patients with cancer and 31 OAA. A total of 1829 recommendations were formulated about 59 (75%) medical plants and their interaction with an OAA. Herb-drug interactions should not be ignored by healthcare providers in their management of cancer patients in daily practice.

Deciphering the Nutraceutical Potential of Raphanus sativus-A Comprehensive Overview

Raphanus sativus (Radish) belongs to the Brassicaceae family and is a widely consumed root vegetable all around the world. The nutritional and medicinal values of radishes have been proven by several researches. Extracts prepared from the aerial and underground parts of radishes have been used in the treatment of stomach disorders, urinary infections, hepatic inflammation, cardiac disorders and ulcers in folk medicine since the ancient times. The pharmaceutical potential of radishes is attributed to the presence of its beneficial secondary metabolites, such as glucosinolates, polyphenols and isothiocyanates. The present review has focused on the impact of radish extract administration under pathological complications, such as cancer, diabetes, hepatic inflammation and oxidative stress. In addition, a comprehensive view of molecular mechanism behind the regulation of molecular drug targets associated with different types of cancers and diabetes by the bioactive compounds present in the radish extracts have been discussed in detail.

Black Radish (Raphanus sativus L. var. niger) Extract Mediates Its Hepatoprotective Effect on Carbon Tetrachloride-Induced Hepatic Injury by Attenuating Oxidative Stress

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease is a serious liver disorder associated with oxidative stress. Black radish (Raphanus sativus L. var. niger) extract (BRE) can lower the risk of this disease. The hepatoprotective effect of BRE containing 3-(E)-(methylthio)methylene-2-pyrrolidinethione was evaluated in human hepatocyte carcinoma (HepG2) cells and in rat livers with carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced hepatic injury. BRE was administered at 125, 250, 500, and 1000 μg/mL to the oleic acid-induced HepG2 cells. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into seven groups: the control group, BRE group, CCl₄ group, and BRE + CCl₄ group. BRE was administered orally at 125, 250, 500, and 1000 mg/kg/day once daily for 7 consecutive days, followed by a single oral treatment of 1.5 mL/kg CCl₄. Inhibition of lipid accumulation, serum markers of liver injury, histological evaluations, levels of oxidative stress related enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidants in HepG2 cells and liver tissue were investigated. The protein expression of main liver P450 isoenzymes such as cytochrome p450(CYP)2E1, the expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor-2(Nrf-2) and heme oxygenase-1(HO-1) were also studied. BRE has an inhibitory effect on lipid accumulation and caused acute hepatotoxicity manifested by increased levels of lipid peroxidation, serum alanine aminotransferase, and aspartate aminotransferase with corresponding histopathological changes and high levels of oxidative stress. BRE treatment significantly increased the level of CYP2E1, Nrf-2, and HO-1 in a dose-dependent manner. Besides, 3-(E)-(methylthio)methylene-2-pyrrolidinethione significantly increased radical-scavenging effects and the expression of Nrf-2 in oleic acid-treated HepG2 cells. These results suggest that BRE treatment reduces lipid accumulation in oleic acid-induced steatosis of HepG2 cells, and has a hepatoprotective effect against CCl₄-induced liver injury in rats, possibly through Nrf-2/HO-1-mediated antioxidant effects.

Comparative transcriptome analysis provides insights of anti-insect molecular mechanism of Cassia obtusifolia trypsin inhibitor against Pieris rapae

Pieris rapae, a serious Lepidoptera pest of cultivated crucifers, utilizes midgut enzymes to digest food and detoxify secondary metabolites from host plants. A recombinant trypsin inhibitor (COTI) from nonhost plant, Cassia obtusifolia, significantly decreased activities of trypsin-like proteases in the larval midgut on Pieris rapae and could suppress the growth of larvae. In order to know how COTI took effect, transcriptional profiles of P. rapae midgut in response to COTI was studied. A total of 51,544 unigenes were generated and 45.86% of which had homologs in public databases. Most of the regulated genes associated with digestion, detoxification, homeostasis, and resistance were downregulated after ingestion of COTI. Meanwhile, several unigenes in the integrin signaling pathway might be involved in response to COTI. Furthermore, using comparative transcriptome analysis, we detected differently expressing genes and identified a new reference gene, UPF3, by qRT-polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Therefore, it was suggested that not only proteolysis inhibition, but also suppression of expression of genes involved in metabolism, development, signaling, and defense might account for the anti-insect resistance of COTI.

Pelargonidin Modulates Keap1/Nrf2 Pathway Gene Expression and Ameliorates Citrinin-Induced Oxidative Stress in HepG2 Cells

Pelargonidin chloride (PC) is one of the major anthocyanin found in berries, radish and other natural foods. Many natural chemopreventive compounds have been shown to be potent inducers of phase II detoxification genes and its up-regulation is important for oxidative stress related disorders. In the present study, we investigated the effect of PC in ameliorating citrinin (CTN) induced cytotoxicity and oxidative stress. The cytotoxicity of CTN was evaluated by treating HepG2 (Human hepatocellular carcinoma) cells with CTN (0–150 μM) in a dose dependent manner for 24 h, and the IC₅₀ was determined to be 96.16 μM. CTN increased lactate dehydrogenase leakage (59%), elevated reactive oxygen species (2.5-fold), depolarized mitochondrial membrane potential as confirmed by JC-1 monomers and arrested cell cycle at G2/M phase. Further, apoptotic and necrotic analysis revealed significant changes followed by DNA damage. To overcome these toxicological effects, PC was pretreated for 2 h followed by CTN exposure for 24 h. Pretreatment with PC resulted in significant increase in cell viability (84.5%), restored membrane integrity, reactive oxygen species level were maintained and cell cycle phases were normal. PC significantly up-regulated the activity of detoxification enzymes: heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1), glutathione transferase, glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase and quinone reductase. Nrf2 translocation into the nucleus was also observed by immunocytochemistry analysis. These data demonstrate the protective effect of PC against CTN-induced oxidative stress in HepG2 cells and up-regulated the activity of detoxification enzyme levels through Keap1/Nrf2 signaling pathway.

Enhancement Of Glucosinolate and Isothiocyanate Profiles in Brassicaceae Crops: Addressing Challenges in Breeding for Cultivation, Storage, and Consumer-Related Traits

Glucosinolates (GSLs) and isothiocyanates (ITCs) produced by Brassicaceae plants are popular targets for analysis due to the health benefits associated with them. Breeders aim to increase the concentrations in commercial varieties; however, there are few examples of this. The most well-known is Beneforté broccoli, which has increased glucoraphanin/sulforaphane concentrations compared to those of conventional varieties. It was developed through traditional breeding methods with considerations for processing, consumption, and health made throughout this process. Many studies presented in the literature do not take a holistic approach, and key points about breeding, cultivation methods, postharvest storage, sensory attributes, and consumer preferences are not properly taken into account. In this review, we draw together data for multiple species and address how such factors can influence GSL profiles. We encourage researchers and institutions to engage with industry and consumers to produce research that can be utilized in the improvement of Brassicaceae crops.

Radish (Raphanus sativus) and Diabetes

For more than three decades, various in vitro and in vivo studies have linked radishes with diabetes, though this link has not been discussed. This review systematically addresses and summarizes the effect of radishes on diabetes. We searched the Web of Science, PubMed, and EMBASE databases for English language articles from June 1987 through May 2017 using the key words "radish" and "diabetes," and the references from particular reports were also considered if relevant. In summary, radish has been identified as having antidiabetic effects, making it favorable for those with diabetic conditions. This may be due to its ability to enhance the antioxidant defense mechanism and reduce the accumulation of free radicals, affect hormonal-induced glucose hemostasis, promote glucose uptake and energy metabolism, and reduce glucose absorption in the intestine. However, this summary requires further confirmation in research in vivo studies and clinical trials.

The mechanism of deterioration of the glucosinolate-myrosynase system in radish roots during cold storage after harvest

The hydrolysis of glucosinolates (GSLs) by myrosinase yields varieties of degradation products including isothiocyanates (ITCs). This process is controlled by the glucosinolate-myrosinase (G-M) system. The major ITCs in radish roots are raphasatin and sulforaphene (SFE), and the levels of these compounds decrease during storage after harvest. We investigated the G-M system to understand the mechanism behind the decrease in the ITCs in radish roots. Six varieties of radish roots were stored for 8weeks at 0-1.5°C. The concentrations of GSLs (glucoraphasatin and glucoraphenin) were maintained at harvest levels without significant changes during the storage period. However, SFE concentration and myrosinase activity remarkably decreased for 8weeks. Pearson correlation analysis between ITCs, GSLs, and myrosinase activity showed that a decrease of SFE during storage had a positive correlation with a decrease in myrosinase activity, which resulted from a decrease of ascorbic acid but also a decrease of myrosinase activity-related gene expressions.

Leaves of Raphanus sativus L. Shows Anti-Inflammatory Activity in LPS-Stimulated Macrophages via Suppression of COX-2 and iNOS Expression

Raphanus sativus L. (RS) is a cruciferous vegetable that is widely consumed in Korea. The anticancer activity of leaves of RS (RSL) extract has been investigated; however, no studies focused on its anti-inflammatory effects. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to evaluate the anti-inflammatory effects of RSL extract. In brief, RSL powder was fractionated into n-hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, n-butanol, and water-soluble fractions. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 cells were treated with each fraction for initial screening. It was found that the chloroform fraction significantly inhibited nitric oxide release in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells with a half maximal inhibitory concentration value of 196 μg/mL. In addition, the mRNA and protein expression levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase, measured using reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and western blotting, respectively, were reduced in a concentration-dependent manner. Moreover, the inflammatory cyclooxygenase-2 enzyme expression decreased. Furthermore, the expression of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), the key regulator of the transcriptional activation of the inflammatory cytokine genes, was reduced by the RSL chloroform fraction. Therefore, the results of our study suggest that RSL exhibits anti-inflammatory effects in LPS-stimulated macrophages via NF-κB inactivation.

Inhibition of growth and induction of apoptosis in A549 cells by compounds from oxheart cabbage extract

BACKGROUND

Oxheart cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) is a member of the Brassica genus. Although some studies on the anticancer effects of extracts from oxheart cabbage have been reported, comprehensive information on the bioactive fractions and components from oxheart cabbage extracts is still lacking. The aim of this study was to isolate and identify the bioactive fractions and components from oxheart cabbage seeds using activity-guided isolation methods.

RESULTS

The cytotoxicity and apoptotic effects of fraction II, fraction III, iberverin, sulforaphane and iberin from oxheart cabbage seed extract were investigated. The results showed that all five components had inhibitory effects on the in vitro growth of A549 cells which were dose-dependent. These compounds also changed the morphology of A549 cells, and their inhibitory activity on A549 cells was as follows: sulforaphane > iberin > iberverin > fraction III > fraction II. The IC50 values were 3.53 ± 0.63, 4.93 ± 1.02, 7.07 ± 0.51, 15.56 ± 0.24 and 27.32 ± 0.63 µg mL(-1) respectively. Fraction II, fraction III, iberverin, sulforaphane and iberin induced cell apoptosis by increasing early apoptosis and late apoptosis/necrosis, and activation of caspase-3, -8 and -9.

CONCLUSION

These results indicated that the decrease in A549 cell viability by active compounds from oxheart cabbage seed extract was due to the induction of apoptosis. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry.

Dietary Natural Products for Prevention and Treatment of Liver Cancer

Liver cancer is the most common malignancy of the digestive system with high death rate. Accumulating evidences suggests that many dietary natural products are potential sources for prevention and treatment of liver cancer, such as grapes, black currant, plum, pomegranate, cruciferous vegetables, French beans, tomatoes, asparagus, garlic, turmeric, ginger, soy, rice bran, and some edible macro-fungi. These dietary natural products and their active components could affect the development and progression of liver cancer in various ways, such as inhibiting tumor cell growth and metastasis, protecting against liver carcinogens, immunomodulating and enhancing effects of chemotherapeutic drugs. This review summarizes the potential prevention and treatment activities of dietary natural products and their major bioactive constituents on liver cancer, and discusses possible mechanisms of action.

Use of TD-GC-TOF-MS to assess volatile composition during post-harvest storage in seven accessions of rocket salad (Eruca sativa)

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We present a robust method for VOC analysis from rocket salad packaging headspace.

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TD-GC–TOF-MS putatively identified 39 volatile compounds.

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VOC profiles for Eruca sativa varied significantly between accessions.

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Isothiocyanate compounds degrade significantly over shelf-life.

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Changes in VOC profiles could provide a useful tool for assessment of leaf quality.

An important step in breeding for nutritionally enhanced varieties is determining the effects of the post-harvest supply chain on phytochemicals and the changes in VOCs produced over time. TD-GC–TOF-MS was used and a technique for the extraction of VOCs from the headspace using portable tubes is described. Forty-two compounds were detected; 39 were identified by comparison to NIST libraries. Thirty-five compounds had not been previously reported in Eruca sativa. Seven accessions were assessed for changes in headspace VOCs over 7 days. Relative amounts of VOCs across 3 time points were significantly different – isothiocyanate-containing molecules being abundant on ‘Day 0’. Each accession showed differences in proportions/types of volatiles produced on each day. PCA revealed a separation of VOC profiles according to the day of sampling. Changes in VOC profiles over time could provide a tool for assessment of shelf life.

Formation and Stabilization of Raphasatin and Sulforaphene from Radish Roots by Endogenous Enzymolysis

The biologically active compounds raphasatin and sulforaphene are formed during the hydrolysis of radishes by an endogenous myrosinase. Raphasatin is very unstable, and it is generated and simultaneously degraded to less active compounds during hydrolysis in aqueous media. This study determined the hydrolysis conditions to maximize the formation of raphasatin and sulforaphene by an endogenous myrosinase and minimize their degradation during the hydrolysis of radish roots. The reaction parameters, such as the reaction medium, reaction time, type of mixing, and reaction temperature were optimized. A stability test for raphasatin and sulforaphene was also performed during storage of the hydrolyzed products at 25°C for 10 days. The formation and breakdown of raphasatin and sulforaphene in radish roots by endogenous enzymolysis was strongly influenced by the reaction medium, reaction time, and type of mixing. The production and stabilization of raphasatin in radishes was efficient in water and dichloromethane with shaking for 15 min at 25°C. For sulforaphene, the favorable condition was water as the reaction medium without shaking for 10 min at 25°C. The maximum yields of raphasatin and sulforaphene were achieved in a concurrent hydrolysis reaction without shaking in water for 10 min and then with shaking in dichloromethane for 15 min at 25°C. Under these conditions, the yields of raphasatin and sulforaphene were maximized at 12.89 and 1.93 μmol/g of dry radish, respectively. The stabilities of raphasatin and sulforaphene in the hydrolyzed products were 56.4% and 86.5% after 10 days of storage in water and dichloromethane at 25°C.

Plants Consumption and Liver Health

The liver is a very important organ with a lot of functions for the host to survive. Dietary components are essential for and can be beneficial or detrimental to the healthy or diseased liver. Plants food is an essential part of the human diet and comprises various compounds which are closely related to liver health. Selected food plants can provide nutritional and medicinal support for liver disease. At the present, the knowledge of the effects of plants on the liver is still incomplete. The most urgent task at the present time is to find the best dietary and medicinal plants for liver health in an endless list of candidates. This review article updates the knowledge about the effects of plants consumption on the health of the liver, putting particular emphasis on the potential beneficial and harmful impact of dietary and medicinal plants on liver function.

An open label pilot study to evaluate the efficacy of Spanish black radish on the induction of phase I and phase II enzymes in healthy male subjects

Background

Humans are exposed to toxins which accumulate in the body, and are detoxified primarily in the liver. Studies have shown that cruciferous vegetables (such as radishes) may be beneficial to health by aiding detoxification of toxins in the liver.

Methods

This single-centre, open-label, pilot study investigated the effect of a dietary supplement containing Spanish Black Radish on hepatic function in healthy males by monitoring the profiles of plasma and urine acetaminophen metabolites and serum hormone concentrations at baseline and after 4 weeks of supplementation. A paired t-test was used to compare pre- and post-treatment of plasma and urine acetaminophen metabolite profiles, serum hormone concentrations and safety end points.

Results

Area under the curve (AUC) from 0 to 8 hours for the acetaminophen glucuronide metabolite and unchanged acetaminophen in plasma decreased from baseline to week 4 by 9% (P = 0.004) and 40% (P = 0.010), respectively. The AUC from 0 to 8 hours for acetaminophen sulfate and mercapturate metabolites in the urine increased by 11% (P = 0.010) and 37% (P = 0.024), respectively, from baseline to week 4. The AUC from 0 to 8 hours of serum estradiol-17β decreased by 10% from baseline to week 4 (P = 0.005). All measures of clinical safety remained within acceptable laboratory ranges, however a significant reduction in plasma γ-glutamyl transferase levels was noted after 4 weeks of Spanish Black Radish treatment (P = 0.002).

Conclusions

These changes in metabolite and hormone levels indicate that Spanish Black Radish supplements have a positive influence on the detoxification of acetaminophen suggesting up-regulation of phase I and phase II liver enzymes. This study was sponsored by Standard Process Inc.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov registration number NCT02137590 (Date of registration: May 12, 2014)

Spanish black radish (Raphanus sativus L. Var. niger) diet enhances clearance of DMBA and diminishes toxic effects on bone marrow progenitor cells

Vegetables of the Cruciferae family contain high levels of glucosinolates, metabolites of which are believed to enhance detoxification. Spanish black radishes (SBR) contain 4× more glucosinolates than other crucifers. This study examined whether feeding mice a diet containing 20% SBR for 2 wk could enhance metabolism of 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA) and inhibit DMBA-mediated bone marrow toxicity. Expression of Phase I and II detoxification enzymes was significantly greater for mice fed SBR than control diet. Six hours after DMBA administration, the blood levels of DMBA in mice fed the SBR diet were significantly lower than mice fed a control diet. DMBA reduced bone marrow cells in mice fed control diet to a significantly greater extent than mice fed the SBR diet. Colony forming assays demonstrated that mice on the SBR diet had 1) less reduction in lymphoid CFU-preB progenitor cells, 2) greater recovery of CFU-preB progenitor cells at 168 h, and 3) less reduction of CFU-GM progenitor cells at 6 h. Therefore, mice fed a 20% SBR diet for 2 wk had greater expression of detoxification enzymes, faster metabolism of DMBA, and a reduction in DMBA-induced bone marrow toxicity. Overall, these results support the hypothesis that glucosinolates in SBR are protective against acute toxicity.

Raphanus sativus L. var niger as a source of phytochemicals for the prevention of cholesterol gallstones

Raphanus sativus L. var niger (black radish) is a plant of the cruciferous family with important ethnobotanical uses for the treatment of gallstones in Mexican traditional medicine. It has been established that the juice of black radish decreases cholesterol levels in plasma and dissolves gallstones in mice. Glucosinolates, the main secondary metabolites of black radish, can hydrolyze into its respective isothiocyanates and have already demonstrated antioxidant properties as well as their ability to diminish hepatic cholesterol levels; such therapeutic effects can prevent the formation of cholesterol gallstones. This disease is considered a current problem of public health. In the present review, we analyze and discuss the therapeutic effects of the main glucosinolates of black radish, as well as the effects that this plant has on cholesterol gallstones disease.

Antilithiasic and hypolipidaemic effects of Raphanus sativus L. var. niger on mice fed with a lithogenic diet

In Mexico, Raphanus sativus L. var. niger (black radish) has uses for the treatment of gallstones and for decreasing lipids serum levels. We evaluate the effect of juice squeezed from black radish root in cholesterol gallstones and serum lipids of mice. The toxicity of juice was analyzed according to the OECD guidelines. We used female C57BL/6 mice fed with a lithogenic diet. We performed histopathological studies of gallbladder and liver, and measured concentrations of cholesterol, HDL cholesterol and triglycerides. The juice can be considered bioactive and non-toxic; the lithogenic diet significantly induced cholesterol gallstones; increased cholesterol and triglycerides levels, and decreased HDL levels; gallbladder wall thickness increased markedly, showing epithelial hyperplasia and increased liver weight. After treatment with juice for 6 days, cholesterol gallstones were eradicated significantly in the gallbladder of mice; cholesterol and triglycerides levels decreased too, and there was also an increase in levels of HDL (P < 0.05). Gallbladder tissue continued to show epithelial hyperplasia and granulocyte infiltration; liver tissue showed vacuolar degeneration. The juice of black radish root has properties for treatment of cholesterol gallstones and for decreasing serum lipids levels; therefore, we confirm in a preclinical study the utility that people give it in traditional medicine.

Characteristics of papaya seed oils obtained by extrusion-expelling processes

BACKGROUND

In general, about 300 g kg(-1) of the weight of papaya fruits appears as waste materials during processing, including a considerable amount of papaya seeds. To make a more efficient use of papaya, it is worth investigating the utilization of the seeds. The aim of this study was to comprehensively assess the lipid characteristics of papaya seed oil obtained by expelling processes.

RESULTS

Papaya seed oil was found to have several unique characteristics, including its high oleic content, the relative ratio of saturated/monounsaturated/polyunsaturated fatty acids of 29/68/3, the polyunsaturated fatty acids merely accounting for 3.34% and its triacylglycerol composition being very similar to that of olive oil. Also, this oil was rich in chemopreventive benzyl isothiocyanate, the level ranging from 4.0 to 23.3 g kg(-1) dependent on the various processing methods for the pretreatment of papaya seeds.

CONCLUSION

On the basis of our results, papaya seed oil can be considered as a high-oleic oil with a chemoprotective effect, and may be viewed as a healthy alternative in the functional food industry.

4-Methylsulfanyl-3-butenyl isothiocyanate derived from glucoraphasatin is a potent inducer of rat hepatic phase II enzymes and a potential chemopreventive agent

The objective of this study was to establish whether the phytochemical glucoraphasatin, a glucosinolate present in cruciferous vegetables, and its corresponding isothiocyanate, 4-methylsulfanyl-3-butenyl isothiocyanate, up-regulate enzymes involved in the detoxification of carcinogens and are thus potential chemopreventive agents. Glucoraphasatin and myrosinase were isolated and purified from Daikon sprouts and Sinapis alba L., respectively. Glucoraphasatin (0-10 μM) was incubated for 24 h with precision-cut rat liver slices in the presence and absence of myrosinase, the enzyme that converts the glucosinolate to the isothiocyanate. The intact glucosinolate failed to influence the O-dealkylations of methoxy- and ethoxyresorufin or the apoprotein expression of CYP1 enzymes. Supplementation with myrosinase led to an increase in the dealkylation of methoxyresorufin, but only at the highest concentration of the glucosinolate, and CYP1A2 expression. In the absence of myrosinase, glucoraphasatin caused a marked increase in epoxide hydrolase activity at concentrations as low as 1 μM paralleled by a rise in the enzyme protein expression; at the highest concentration only, a rise was also observed in glucuronosyl transferase activity, but other phase II enzyme systems were unaffected. Addition of myrosinase to the glucoraphasatin incubation maintained the rise in epoxide hydrolase and glucuronosyl transferase activities, further elevated quinone reductase and glutathione S-transferase activities, and increased total glutathione concentrations. It is concluded that at low concentrations, glucoraphasatin, either intact and/or through the formation of 4-methylsulfanyl-3-butenyl isothiocyanate, is a potent inducer of hepatic enzymes involved in the detoxification of chemical carcinogens and merits further investigation for chemopreventive activity.

Phytochemical composition and biological activity of 8 varieties of radish (Raphanus sativus L.) sprouts and mature taproots

Radishes (Raphanus sativus L.) are members of the cruciferous vegetable family that contain many classes of biologically active phytochemicals. This study determined the phytochemical composition of the sprouts and mature taproots of 8 radish varieties. Radish sprouts contained significantly greater concentrations of glucosinolates (3.8-fold) and isothiocyanates (8.2-fold) than the mature radish taproot and also contained significantly greater concentrations of phenolics (on average 6.9-fold). The anthocyanin concentrations of the mature radish taproot were significantly greater than in the sprouts of red, pink, and purple varieties. The primary anthocyanidins present in the red and pink radish varieties were pelargonidin and delphinidin, while the primary anthocyanidin in the purple radish variety was cyanidin. Radish sprouts were between 9- and 59-fold more potent than the corresponding mature taproot at activating the antioxidant response element (ARE) in a stably transfected hepatoma cell line. The ARE activity of the radish sprouts and mature taproots was significantly correlated with the total isothiocyanate concentration of the radishes. Practical Application: Understanding the influence variety and developmental stage has on the biological activity of cruciferous vegetables provides important information for further studies examining the in vivo effects of radish treatment and foundation for providing recommendations to reduce the risk of chronic disease through dietary intervention.

Glucoraphasatin: chemistry, occurrence, and biological properties

Glucoraphasatin is an atypical glucosinolate mainly found in Raphanus sativus roots and sprouts. This review focuses on the chemistry, the occurrence, and the biological properties of glucoraphasatin.

Variation in amylase activities in radish (Raphanus sativus) cultivars

The radish (Raphanus sativus) is a root vegetable of the Brassicaceae family which shows amylolytic activity in the taproot. However, there is little information about differences in these amylolytic activities among radish cultivars. We analyzed the amylase activities and starch contents of 7 kinds of radish cultivars. The Koshin cultivar showed the highest amylase activity, with a level approximately 6 times higher than that of the Sobutori cultivar, which had the lowest. Cultivars with higher amylase activities showed higher starch contents. These results suggest that there are intraspecies variations in amylolytic activities in radishes, and positive correlations between amylase activity and starch content.

Sulforaphane and its analogues inhibit CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 activity induced by benzo[a]pyrene

CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 enzymes metabolize polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) to the reactive oxyderivatives. PAHs can induce the activity of both enzymes, which increases its conversion and enhances risk of carcinogenesis. Thus, the inhibition of CYP enzymes is recognized as a cancer chemoprevention strategy. A well-known group of chemopreventive agents is isothiocyanates, which occur naturally in Brassica vegetables. In this paper, a naturally occurring sulforaphane and its two synthetic analogues isothiocyanate-2-oxohexyl and alyssin were investigated. The aim of the study was to determine whether the differences in the isothiocyanate structure change its ability to inhibit CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 activity induced by benzo[a]pyrene in HepG2 and Mcf7 cells. Also a mechanistic study was performed including isothiocyanates' influence on CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 catalytic activity, enzymatic protein level, and AhR translocation. It was shown that both enzymes were significantly induced by benzo[a]pyrene, and isothiocyanates were capable of decreasing the induced activity. The inhibitory properties depend on the types of isothiocyanate and enzyme. In general, CYP1A2 was altered in the more meaningful way than CYP1A1 by isothiocyanates. Sulforaphane exhibited weak inhibitory properties, whereas both analogues were capable of inhibiting BaP-induced activity with the similar efficacy. The mechanistic study revealed that analogues decreased the CYP1A2 activity via the protein-level reduction and CYP1A1 directly. The results indicate that isothiocyanates can be considered as potent chemopreventive substances and the change in the sulforaphane structure increases its chemopreventive potency.

Natural heme oxygenase-1 inducers in hepatobiliary function

Many physiological effects of natural antioxidants, their extracts or their major active components, have been reported in recent decades. Most of these compounds are characterized by a phenolic structure, similar to that of α-tocopherol, and present antioxidant properties that have been demonstrated both in vitro and in vivo. Polyphenols may increase the capacity of endogenous antioxidant defences and modulate the cellular redox state. Changes in the cellular redox state may have wide-ranging consequences for cellular growth and differentiation. The majority of in vitro and in vivo studies conducted so far have attributed the protective effect of bioactive polyphenols to their chemical reactivity toward free radicals and their capacity to prevent the oxidation of important intracellular components. However, in recent years a possible novel aspect in the mode of action of these compounds has been suggested; that is, the ultimate stimulation of the heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) pathway is likely to account for the established and powerful antioxidant/anti-inflammatory properties of these polyphenols. The products of the HO-catalyzed reaction, particularly carbon monoxide (CO) and biliverdin/bilirubin have been shown to exert protective effects in several organs against oxidative and other noxious stimuli. In this context, it is interesting to note that induction of HO-1 expression by means of natural compounds contributes to protection against liver damage in various experimental models. The focus of this review is on the significance of targeted induction of HO-1 as a potential therapeutic strategy to protect the liver against various stressors in several pathological conditions.

Modulation of rat hepatic and pulmonary cytochromes P450 and phase II enzyme systems by erucin, an isothiocyanate structurally related to sulforaphane

Administration of dietary doses of the isothiocyanate erucin had no effect on rat hepatic cytochrome P450 activity or protein levels, but at higher doses a rise in CYP1A/B1 protein levels was evident. In lung, treatment with erucin, as well as sulforaphane, failed to modulate cytochrome P450 activities but elevated CYP1A/B1 protein levels. In liver, erucin stimulated quinone reductase activity accompanied by a rise in protein. Glutathione S-transferase activity was unaffected, but GSTalpha and GSTmu protein levels increased. In lung, both isothiocyanates increased quinone reductase paralleled by a rise in protein levels; at the higher dose both isothiocyanates elevated moderately GSTalpha levels. Hepatic microsomes converted both isothiocyanates to metabolites that impaired cytochrome P450 activity, which was antagonized by reduced glutathione. It may be concluded that erucin may protect against carcinogens by stimulating the detoxication of quinones but is unlikely to significantly influence reactive intermediate generation through modulation of cytochrome P450 activity.

The chemistry behind redox regulation with a focus on sulphur redox systems

Sulphur metabolism in plants provides a wealth of natural products, including several chemically unusual substances, such as thiosulphinates, polysulphides and isothiocyanates. Many of these reactive sulphur species (RSS) exhibit a distinct redox behaviour in vitro, which translates into a rather interesting biological activity in vivo, such as antibiotic, fungicidal, pesticidal or anticancer activity. While the molecular basis for such activity has long remained obscure, research into sulphur-based redox systems during the past 5-10 years has achieved a better knowledge of the in vitro properties of RSS and has led to an improved understanding of their impact on intracellular redox signalling and control pathways in living cells. It has become apparent that the redox chameleon sulphur occurs in biological systems in about 10 different oxidation states, which give rise to an extensive and complicated network of sulphur-based redox events. Together, natural sulphur products from plants and their intracellular targets provide the basis for innovative design of novel antibiotics, fungicides, pesticides and anticancer agents.