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Delbrouck JA, Desgagné M, Comeau C, Bouarab K, Malouin F, Boudreault PL. The Therapeutic Value of Solanum Steroidal (Glyco)Alkaloids: A 10-Year Comprehensive Review. Molecules 2023; 28:4957. [PMID: 37446619 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28134957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Revised: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Steroidal (glycol)alkaloids S(G)As are secondary metabolites made of a nitrogen-containing steroidal skeleton linked to a (poly)saccharide, naturally occurring in the members of the Solanaceae and Liliaceae plant families. The genus Solanum is familiar to all of us as a food source (tomato, potato, eggplant), but a few populations have also made it part of their ethnobotany for their medicinal properties. The recent development of the isolation, purification and analysis techniques have shed light on the structural diversity among the SGAs family, thus attracting scientists to investigate their various pharmacological properties. This review aims to overview the recent literature (2012-2022) on the pharmacological benefits displayed by the SGAs family. Over 17 different potential therapeutic applications (antibiotic, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, etc.) were reported over the past ten years, and this unique review analyzes each pharmacological effect independently without discrimination of either the SGA's chemical identity or their sources. A strong emphasis is placed on the discovery of their biological targets and the subsequent cellular mechanisms, discussing in vitro to in vivo biological data. The therapeutic value and the challenges of the solanum steroidal glycoalkaloid family is debated to provide new insights for future research towards clinical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien A Delbrouck
- Institut de Pharmacologie, Faculté de Médecine et des Sciences de la Santé, Université de Sherbrooke, 3001 12e Avenue Nord, Sherbrooke, QC J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Michael Desgagné
- Institut de Pharmacologie, Faculté de Médecine et des Sciences de la Santé, Université de Sherbrooke, 3001 12e Avenue Nord, Sherbrooke, QC J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Christian Comeau
- Institut de Pharmacologie, Faculté de Médecine et des Sciences de la Santé, Université de Sherbrooke, 3001 12e Avenue Nord, Sherbrooke, QC J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Kamal Bouarab
- Centre SEVE, Département de Biologie, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, 2500 Boul de l'Université, Sherbrooke, QC J1K 2R1, Canada
| | - François Malouin
- Département de Biologie, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, 2500 Boul de l'Université, Sherbrooke, QC J1K 2R1, Canada
| | - Pierre-Luc Boudreault
- Institut de Pharmacologie, Faculté de Médecine et des Sciences de la Santé, Université de Sherbrooke, 3001 12e Avenue Nord, Sherbrooke, QC J1H 5N4, Canada
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Swinnen G, De Meyer M, Pollier J, Molina-Hidalgo FJ, Ceulemans E, Venegas-Molina J, De Milde L, Fernández-Calvo P, Ron M, Pauwels L, Goossens A. The basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors MYC1 and MYC2 have a dual role in the regulation of constitutive and stress-inducible specialized metabolism in tomato. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2022; 236:911-928. [PMID: 35838067 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 07/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Plants produce specialized metabolites to protect themselves from biotic enemies. Members of the Solanaceae family accumulate phenylpropanoid-polyamine conjugates (PPCs) in response to attackers while also maintaining a chemical barrier of steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGAs). Across the plant kingdom, biosynthesis of such defense compounds is promoted by jasmonate signaling in which clade IIIe basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factors play a central role. By characterizing hairy root mutants obtained through Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)-CRISPR associated protein 9 (CRISPR-Cas9) genome editing, we show that the tomato clade IIIe bHLH transcription factors, MYC1 and MYC2, redundantly control jasmonate-inducible PPC and SGA production, and are also essential for constitutive SGA biosynthesis. Double myc1 myc2 loss-of-function tomato hairy roots displayed suppressed constitutive expression of SGA biosynthesis genes, and severely reduced levels of the main tomato SGAs α-tomatine and dehydrotomatine. In contrast, basal expression of genes involved in PPC biosynthesis was not affected. CRISPR-Cas9(VQR) genome editing of a specific cis-regulatory element, targeted by MYC1/2, in the promoter of a SGA precursor biosynthesis gene led to decreased constitutive expression of this gene, but did not affect its jasmonate inducibility. Our results demonstrate that clade IIIe bHLH transcriptional regulators have evolved under the control of distinct regulatory cues to specifically steer constitutive and stress-inducible specialized metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gwen Swinnen
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
- VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Margaux De Meyer
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
- VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jacob Pollier
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
- VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
- VIB Metabolomics Core, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Francisco Javier Molina-Hidalgo
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
- VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Evi Ceulemans
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
- VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jhon Venegas-Molina
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
- VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Liesbeth De Milde
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
- VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Patricia Fernández-Calvo
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
- VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Mily Ron
- Department of Plant Biology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Laurens Pauwels
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
- VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Alain Goossens
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
- VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
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3
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Ngo TH, Park J, Jo YD, Jin CH, Jung CH, Nam B, Han AR, Nam JW. Content of Two Major Steroidal Glycoalkaloids in Tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum cv. Micro-Tom) Mutant Lines at Different Ripening Stages. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 11:2895. [PMID: 36365348 PMCID: PMC9654965 DOI: 10.3390/plants11212895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Esculeoside A and tomatine are two major steroidal alkaloids in tomato fruit (Solanum lycopersicum) that exhibit anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and anti-hyperlipidemia activities. Tomatine contained in immature tomato fruit is converted to esculeoside A as the fruit matures. To develop new tomato varieties based on the content analysis of functional secondary metabolites, 184 mutant lines were generated from the original cultivar (S. lycopersicum cv. Micro-Tom) by radiation breeding. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with evaporative light scattering detector was used to identify the mutant lines with good traits by analyzing tomatine and esculeoside A content. Compared with the original cultivar, candidates for highly functional cultivars with high esculeoside A content were identified in the mature fruit of the mutant lines. The mutant lines with low and high tomatine content at an immature stage were selected as edible cultivars due to toxicity reduction and as a source of tomatine with various pharmacological activities, respectively. During the process of ripening from green to red tomatoes, the rate of conversion of tomatine to esculeoside A was high in the green tomatoes with a low tomatine content, whereas green tomatoes with a high tomatine content exhibited a low conversion rate. Using methanol extracts prepared from unripe and ripe fruits of the original cultivar and its mutant lines and two major compounds, we examined their cytotoxicity against FaDu human hypopharynx squamous carcinoma cells. Only tomatine exhibited cytotoxicity with an IC50 value of 5.589 μM, whereas the other samples did not exhibit cytotoxicity. Therefore, radiation breeding represents a useful tool for developing new cultivars with high quality, and metabolite analysis is applicable for the rapid and objective selection of potential mutant lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trung Huy Ngo
- College of Pharmacy, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan-si 38541, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Korea
| | - Jisu Park
- Advanced Radiation Technology Institute, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Jeongeup-si 56212, Jeollabuk-do, Korea
| | - Yeong Deuk Jo
- Advanced Radiation Technology Institute, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Jeongeup-si 56212, Jeollabuk-do, Korea
- College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Chungcheongnam-do, Korea
| | - Chang Hyun Jin
- Advanced Radiation Technology Institute, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Jeongeup-si 56212, Jeollabuk-do, Korea
| | - Chan-Hun Jung
- Jeonju AgroBio-Materials Institute, Jeonju-si 54810, Jeollabuk-do, Korea
| | - Bomi Nam
- Institute of Natural Cosmetic Industry for Namwon, Namwon-si 55801, Jeollabuk-do, Korea
| | - Ah-Reum Han
- Advanced Radiation Technology Institute, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Jeongeup-si 56212, Jeollabuk-do, Korea
| | - Joo-Won Nam
- College of Pharmacy, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan-si 38541, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Korea
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Faria-Silva C, de Sousa M, Carvalheiro MC, Simões P, Simões S. Alpha-tomatine and the two sides of the same coin: An anti-nutritional glycoalkaloid with potential in human health. Food Chem 2022; 391:133261. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.133261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2021] [Revised: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Dzakovich MP, Francis DM, Cooperstone JL. Steroidal alkaloid biosynthesis is coordinately regulated and differs among tomatoes in the red-fruited clade. THE PLANT GENOME 2022; 15:e20192. [PMID: 35184399 DOI: 10.1002/tpg2.20192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The tomato (Solanum spp.) clade of Solanaceae features a unique assortment of cholesterol-derived steroidal alkaloids. However, little quantitative data exists reporting the profile and concentration of these alkaloids across diverse fruit germplasm. To address the lack of knowledge regarding the chemical diversity, concentration, and genetic architecture controlling tomato steroidal alkaloids, we quantitatively profiled and genotyped two tomato populations representing diversity in the red-fruited clade. We grew 107 genetically diverse fresh market, processing, landrace, and wild tomato in multiple environments. Nine steroidal alkaloid groups were quantified using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The diversity panel and a biparental population segregating for high alpha-tomatine were genotyped to identify and validate quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with steroidal alkaloids. Landraces and wild material exhibited higher alkaloid concentrations and more chemical diversity. Average total content of steroidal alkaloids, often dominated by lycoperoside F/G/esculeoside A, ranged from 1.9 to 23.3 mg 100 g-1 fresh wt. across accessions. Landrace and wild cherry accessions distinctly clustered based on elevated concentrations of early or late-pathway steroidal alkaloids. Significant correlations were observed among alkaloids from the early and late parts of the biosynthetic pathway in a species-dependent manner. A QTL controlling multiple, early steroidal alkaloid pathway intermediates on chromosome 3 was identified by genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and validated in a backcross population. Overall, tomato steroidal alkaloids are diverse in the red-fruited clade and their biosynthesis is regulated in a coordinated manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Dzakovich
- Dep. of Horticulture and Crop Science, The Ohio State Univ., 2001 Fyffe Court, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
- USDA-ARS Children's Nutrition Research Center, Dep. of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, 1100 Bates Ave., Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - David M Francis
- Dep. of Horticulture and Crop Science, The Ohio State Univ./Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, 1680 Madison Ave., Wooster, OH, 44691, USA
| | - Jessica L Cooperstone
- Dep. of Horticulture and Crop Science, The Ohio State Univ., 2001 Fyffe Court, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
- Dep. of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State Univ., 2015 Fyffe Court., Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
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Kazachkova Y, Zemach I, Panda S, Bocobza S, Vainer A, Rogachev I, Dong Y, Ben-Dor S, Veres D, Kanstrup C, Lambertz SK, Crocoll C, Hu Y, Shani E, Michaeli S, Nour-Eldin HH, Zamir D, Aharoni A. The GORKY glycoalkaloid transporter is indispensable for preventing tomato bitterness. NATURE PLANTS 2021; 7:468-480. [PMID: 33707737 DOI: 10.1038/s41477-021-00865-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Fruit taste is determined by sugars, acids and in some species, bitter chemicals. Attraction of seed-dispersing organisms in nature and breeding for consumer preferences requires reduced fruit bitterness. A key metabolic shift during ripening prevents tomato fruit bitterness by eliminating α-tomatine, a renowned defence-associated Solanum alkaloid. Here, we combined fine mapping with information from 150 resequenced genomes and genotyping a 650-tomato core collection to identify nine bitter-tasting accessions including the 'high tomatine' Peruvian landraces reported in the literature. These 'bitter' accessions contain a deletion in GORKY, a nitrate/peptide family transporter mediating α-tomatine subcellular localization during fruit ripening. GORKY exports α-tomatine and its derivatives from the vacuole to the cytosol and this facilitates the conversion of the entire α-tomatine pool to non-bitter forms, rendering the fruit palatable. Hence, GORKY activity was a notable innovation in the process of tomato fruit domestication and breeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yana Kazachkova
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Itay Zemach
- Robert H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Sayantan Panda
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
- Gilat Research Center, Agricultural Research Organization, Rishon Lezion, Israel
| | - Samuel Bocobza
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Andrii Vainer
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Ilana Rogachev
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Yonghui Dong
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Shifra Ben-Dor
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Dorottya Veres
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, DynaMo Center, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Christa Kanstrup
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, DynaMo Center, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Sophie Konstanze Lambertz
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, DynaMo Center, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Christoph Crocoll
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, DynaMo Center, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Yangjie Hu
- Molecular Biology and Ecology of Plants, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Eilon Shani
- Molecular Biology and Ecology of Plants, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Simon Michaeli
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Hussam Hassan Nour-Eldin
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, DynaMo Center, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Dani Zamir
- Robert H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Asaph Aharoni
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel.
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Dong Y, Sonawane P, Cohen H, Polturak G, Feldberg L, Avivi SH, Rogachev I, Aharoni A. High mass resolution, spatial metabolite mapping enhances the current plant gene and pathway discovery toolbox. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2020; 228:1986-2002. [PMID: 32654288 DOI: 10.1111/nph.16809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Understanding when and where metabolites accumulate provides important cues to the gene function. Mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) enables in situ temporal and spatial measurement of a large assortment of metabolites, providing mapping information regarding their cellular distribution. To describe the current state and technical advances using MSI in plant sciences, we employed MSI to demonstrate its significant contribution to the study of plant specialised metabolism. We show that coupling MSI with: (1) RNA interference (RNAi), (2) virus induced gene silencing (VIGS), (3) agroinfiltration or (4) samples derived from plant natural variation provides great opportunities to understand the accurate gene-metabolite relationship and discover novel gene-associated metabolites. This was exemplified in three plant species (i.e. tomato, tobacco and wheat) by mapping the distribution of metabolites possessing a range of polarities. In particular, we demonstrated that MSI is able to spatially map an entire metabolic pathway, including intermediates and final products, in the intricate biosynthetic route to tomato fruit steroidal glycoalkaloids. We therefore envisage MSI as a key component of the metabolome analysis arsenal employed in plant gene discovery strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yonghui Dong
- Department of Plant Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 761001, Israel
| | - Prashant Sonawane
- Department of Plant Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 761001, Israel
| | - Hagai Cohen
- Department of Plant Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 761001, Israel
| | - Guy Polturak
- Department of Plant Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 761001, Israel
| | - Liron Feldberg
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona, 7410001, Israel
| | - Shelly Hen Avivi
- Department of Plant Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 761001, Israel
| | - Ilana Rogachev
- Department of Plant Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 761001, Israel
| | - Asaph Aharoni
- Department of Plant Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 761001, Israel
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Vats S, Bansal R, Rana N, Kumawat S, Bhatt V, Jadhav P, Kale V, Sathe A, Sonah H, Jugdaohsingh R, Sharma TR, Deshmukh R. Unexplored nutritive potential of tomato to combat global malnutrition. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2020; 62:1003-1034. [PMID: 33086895 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2020.1832954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Tomato, a widely consumed vegetable crop, offers a real potential to combat human nutritional deficiencies. Tomatoes are rich in micronutrients and other bioactive compounds (including vitamins, carotenoids, and minerals) that are known to be essential or beneficial for human health. This review highlights the current state of the art in the molecular understanding of the nutritional aspects, conventional and molecular breeding efforts, and biofortification studies undertaken to improve the nutritional content and quality of tomato. Transcriptomics and metabolomics studies, which offer a deeper understanding of the molecular regulation of the tomato's nutrients, are discussed. The potential uses of the wastes from the tomato processing industry (i.e., the peels and seed extracts) that are particularly rich in oils and proteins are also discussed. Recent advancements with CRISPR/Cas mediated gene-editing technology provide enormous opportunities to enhance the nutritional content of agricultural produces, including tomatoes. In this regard, genome editing efforts with respect to biofortification in the tomato plant are also discussed. The recent technological advancements and knowledge gaps described herein aim to help explore the unexplored nutritional potential of the tomato.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanskriti Vats
- National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute (NABI), Mohali, Punjab, India
| | - Ruchi Bansal
- National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute (NABI), Mohali, Punjab, India.,Department of Biotechnology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India
| | - Nitika Rana
- National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute (NABI), Mohali, Punjab, India.,Department of Biotechnology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India
| | - Surbhi Kumawat
- National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute (NABI), Mohali, Punjab, India.,Department of Biotechnology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India
| | - Vacha Bhatt
- Department of Botany, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, MS, India
| | - Pravin Jadhav
- Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola, MS, India
| | - Vijay Kale
- Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola, MS, India
| | - Atul Sathe
- National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute (NABI), Mohali, Punjab, India
| | - Humira Sonah
- National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute (NABI), Mohali, Punjab, India
| | - Ravin Jugdaohsingh
- Biomineral Research Group, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Tilak Raj Sharma
- Division of Crop Science, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India
| | - Rupesh Deshmukh
- National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute (NABI), Mohali, Punjab, India
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Analysis of wild tomato introgression lines elucidates the genetic basis of transcriptome and metabolome variation underlying fruit traits and pathogen response. Nat Genet 2020; 52:1111-1121. [PMID: 32989321 DOI: 10.1038/s41588-020-0690-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2019] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Wild tomato species represent a rich gene pool for numerous desirable traits lost during domestication. Here, we exploited an introgression population representing wild desert-adapted species and a domesticated cultivar to establish the genetic basis of gene expression and chemical variation accompanying the transfer of wild-species-associated fruit traits. Transcriptome and metabolome analysis of 580 lines coupled to pathogen sensitivity assays resulted in the identification of genomic loci associated with levels of hundreds of transcripts and metabolites. These associations occurred in hotspots representing coordinated perturbation of metabolic pathways and ripening-related processes. Here, we identify components of the Solanum alkaloid pathway, as well as genes and metabolites involved in pathogen defense and linking fungal resistance with changes in the fruit ripening regulatory network. Our results outline a framework for understanding metabolism and pathogen resistance during tomato fruit ripening and provide insights into key fruit quality traits.
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Dzakovich MP, Hartman JL, Cooperstone JL. A High-Throughput Extraction and Analysis Method for Steroidal Glycoalkaloids in Tomato. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 11:767. [PMID: 32636855 PMCID: PMC7318899 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.00767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2019] [Accepted: 05/14/2020] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Tomato steroidal glycoalkaloids (tSGAs) are a class of cholesterol-derived metabolites uniquely produced by the tomato clade. These compounds provide protection against biotic stress due to their fungicidal and insecticidal properties. Although commonly reported as being anti-nutritional, both in vitro as well as pre-clinical animal studies have indicated that some tSGAs may have a beneficial impact on human health. However, the paucity of quantitative extraction and analysis methods presents a major obstacle for determining the biological and nutritional functions of tSGAs. To address this problem, we developed and validated the first comprehensive extraction and ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) quantification method for tSGAs. Our extraction method allows for up to 16 samples to be extracted simultaneously in 20 min with 93.0 ± 6.8 and 100.8 ± 13.1% recovery rates for tomatidine and alpha-tomatine, respectively. Our UHPLC-MS/MS method was able to chromatographically separate analytes derived from 18 tSGA peaks representing 9 different tSGA masses, as well as two internal standards, in 13 min. Tomato steroidal glycoalkaloids that did not have available standards were annotated using high resolution mass spectrometry as well as product ion scans that provided fragmentation data. Lastly, we utilized our method to survey a variety of commonly consumed tomato-based products. Total tSGA concentrations ranged from 0.2 to 3.4 mg/serving and represent some of the first reported tSGA concentrations in tomato-based products. Our validation studies indicate that our method is sensitive, robust, and able to be used for a variety of applications where concentrations of biologically relevant tSGAs need to be quantified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P. Dzakovich
- Department of Horticulture and Crop Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Jordan L. Hartman
- Department of Horticulture and Crop Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Jessica L. Cooperstone
- Department of Horticulture and Crop Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
- Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
- *Correspondence: Jessica L. Cooperstone,
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11
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Wang CC, Meng LH, Gao Y, Grierson D, Fu DQ. Manipulation of Light Signal Transduction Factors as a Means of Modifying Steroidal Glycoalkaloids Accumulation in Tomato Leaves. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 9:437. [PMID: 29706975 PMCID: PMC5906708 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.00437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2017] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGAs) are cholesterol-derived specialized metabolites produced by Solanaceous plant species. They contribute to pathogen defense but are considered as anti-nutritional compounds and toxic to humans. Although the genes involved in the SGA biosynthetic pathway have been successfully cloned and identified, transcription factors regulating this pathway are still poorly understood. We report that silencing tomato light signal transduction transcription factors ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL 5 (SlHY5) and PHYTOCHROME INTERACTING FACTOR3 (SlPIF3), by virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS), altered glycoalkaloids levels in tomato leaves compared to control plant. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) and Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) analysis confirmed that SlHY5 and SlPIF3 bind to the promoter of target genes of GLYCOALKALOID METABOLISM (GAME1, GAME4, GAME17), affecting the steady-state concentrations of transcripts coding for SGA pathway enzymes. The results indicate that light-signaling transcription factors HY5 and PIF3 regulate the abundance of SGAs by modulating the transcript levels of these GAME genes. This insight into the regulation of SGA biosynthesis can be used for manipulating the level of these metabolites in crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cui-cui Wang
- Fruit Biology Laboratory, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Lan-huan Meng
- Fruit Biology Laboratory, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Ying Gao
- Fruit Biology Laboratory, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Donald Grierson
- School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Da-qi Fu
- Fruit Biology Laboratory, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Da-qi Fu
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Cárdenas PD, Sonawane PD, Heinig U, Bocobza SE, Burdman S, Aharoni A. The bitter side of the nightshades: Genomics drives discovery in Solanaceae steroidal alkaloid metabolism. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2015; 113:24-32. [PMID: 25556315 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2014.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2014] [Revised: 11/14/2014] [Accepted: 12/05/2014] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Steroidal alkaloids (SAs) and their glycosylated forms (SGAs) are toxic compounds largely produced by members of the Solanaceae and Liliaceae plant families. This class of specialized metabolites serves as a chemical barrier against a broad range of pest and pathogens. In humans and animals, SAs are considered anti-nutritional factors because they affect the digestion and absorption of nutrients from food and might even cause poisoning. In spite of the first report on SAs nearly 200 years ago, much of the molecular basis of their biosynthesis and regulation remains unknown. Aspects concerning chemical structures and biological activities of SAs have been reviewed extensively elsewhere; therefore, in this review the latest insights to the elucidation of the SAs biosynthetic pathway are highlighted. Recently, co-expression analysis combined with metabolic profiling revealed metabolic gene clusters in tomato and potato that contain core genes required for production of the prominent SGAs in these two species. Elaborating the knowledge regarding the SAs biosynthetic pathway, the subcellular transport of these molecules, as well as the identification of regulatory and signaling factors associated with SA metabolism will likely advance understanding of chemical defense mechanisms in Solanaceae and Liliaceae plants. It will also provide the means to develop, through classical breeding or genetic engineering, crops with modified levels of anti-nutritional SAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- P D Cárdenas
- Department of Plant Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel; Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - P D Sonawane
- Department of Plant Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - U Heinig
- Department of Plant Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - S E Bocobza
- Department of Plant Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - S Burdman
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - A Aharoni
- Department of Plant Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel.
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Schwahn K, de Souza LP, Fernie AR, Tohge T. Metabolomics-assisted refinement of the pathways of steroidal glycoalkaloid biosynthesis in the tomato clade. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2014; 56:864-75. [PMID: 25109688 DOI: 10.1111/jipb.12274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2014] [Accepted: 08/07/2014] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGAs) are nitrogen-containing secondary metabolites of the Solanum species, which are known to have large chemical and bioactive diversity in nature. While recent effort and development on LC/MS techniques for SGA profiling have elucidated the main pathways of SGA metabolism in tomato, the problem of peak annotation still remains due to the vast diversity of chemical structure and similar on overlapping of chemical formula. Here we provide a case study of peak classification and annotation approach by integration of species and tissue specificities of SGA accumulation for provision of comprehensive pathways of SGA biosynthesis. In order to elucidate natural diversity of SGA biosynthesis, a total of 169 putative SGAs found in eight tomato accessions (Solanum lycopersicum, S. pimpinellifolium, S. cheesmaniae, S. chmielewskii, S. neorickii, S. peruvianum, S. habrochaites, S. pennellii) and four tissue types were used for correlation analysis. The results obtained in this study contribute annotation and classification of SGAs as well as detecting putative novel biosynthetic branch points. As such this represents a novel strategy for peak annotation for plant secondary metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Schwahn
- University of Potsdam, AG Bioinformatics, Institute for Biochemistry and Biology, Karl-Liebknecht-Str 24-25, 14479, Potsdam-Golm, Germany
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14
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Tohge T, Alseekh S, Fernie AR. On the regulation and function of secondary metabolism during fruit development and ripening. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2014; 65:4599-611. [PMID: 24446507 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ert443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
The maturation and development of tomato fruit has received much attention due both to the complexity and intricacy of the changes which occur during this process and to the importance of these fruits as a component of the human diet. Whilst great advances have been made in understanding molecular genetic aspects of fruit development, our knowledge concerning the metabolic shifts underpinning this process remains largely confined to primary metabolism. Conversely, the majority of the metabolites considered to have health benefits are secondary or specialized metabolites. Prior to assessing the role (if any) of these metabolites in tomato fruit development, considerable effort will be required in order to better describe the complement of secondary metabolites in the tomato and to elucidate the metabolic pathways involved in their synthesis and degradation. Advances in tomato secondary metabolism will be reviewed here focusing on the use of metabolomics strategies and, where applicable, the enabling of these strategies by their coupling to information resident in the tomato genome sequence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takayuki Tohge
- Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Muehlenberg 1. Potsdam 14476, Germany
| | - Saleh Alseekh
- Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Muehlenberg 1. Potsdam 14476, Germany
| | - Alisdair R Fernie
- Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Muehlenberg 1. Potsdam 14476, Germany
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15
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Iijima Y, Watanabe B, Sasaki R, Takenaka M, Ono H, Sakurai N, Umemoto N, Suzuki H, Shibata D, Aoki K. Steroidal glycoalkaloid profiling and structures of glycoalkaloids in wild tomato fruit. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2013; 95:145-57. [PMID: 23941899 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2013.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2013] [Revised: 07/02/2013] [Accepted: 07/17/2013] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGAs) constitute one of the main groups of secondary metabolites in tomato fruit. However, the detailed composition of SGAs other than α-tomatine, dehydrotomatine and esculeoside A, remains unclear. Comparative SGA profiling was performed in eight tomato accessions, including wild tomato species by HPLC-Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (HPLC-FTICR/MS). On the basis of molecular formulae obtained from accurate m/z and fragmentation patterns by multistage MS/ MS (MS(n)), 123 glycoalkaloids in total were screened. Detailed MS(n) analysis showed that the observed structural diversity was derived from various chemical modifications, such as glycosylation, acetylation, hydroxylation and isomerization. Total SGA content in each tomato accession was in the range of 121-1986 nmol/gfr.wt. Furthermore, the compositional variety of SGA structures was distinctive in some tomato accessions. While most tomato accessions were basically categorized as α-tomatine-rich or esculeoside A-rich group, other specific SGAs also accumulated at high levels in wild tomato. Here, five such SGAs were isolated and their structures were determined by NMR spectroscopic analysis, indicating three of them were presumably synthesized during α-tomatine metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoko Iijima
- Department of Nutrition and Life Science, Kanagawa Institute of Technology, 1030 Shimo-ogino, Atsugi, Kanagawa 243-0292, Japan; Kazusa DNA Research Institute, Kazusa-Kamatari 2-6-7, Kisarazu, Chiba 292-0818, Japan.
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Itkin M, Heinig U, Tzfadia O, Bhide AJ, Shinde B, Cardenas PD, Bocobza SE, Unger T, Malitsky S, Finkers R, Tikunov Y, Bovy A, Chikate Y, Singh P, Rogachev I, Beekwilder J, Giri AP, Aharoni A. Biosynthesis of antinutritional alkaloids in solanaceous crops is mediated by clustered genes. Science 2013; 341:175-9. [PMID: 23788733 DOI: 10.1126/science.1240230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 346] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGAs) such as α-solanine found in solanaceous food plants--as, for example, potato--are antinutritional factors for humans. Comparative coexpression analysis between tomato and potato coupled with chemical profiling revealed an array of 10 genes that partake in SGA biosynthesis. We discovered that six of them exist as a cluster on chromosome 7, whereas an additional two are adjacent in a duplicated genomic region on chromosome 12. Following systematic functional analysis, we suggest a revised SGA biosynthetic pathway starting from cholesterol up to the tetrasaccharide moiety linked to the tomato SGA aglycone. Silencing GLYCOALKALOID METABOLISM 4 prevented accumulation of SGAs in potato tubers and tomato fruit. This may provide a means for removal of unsafe, antinutritional substances present in these widely used food crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Itkin
- Department of Plant Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
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Koh E, Kaffka S, Mitchell AE. A long-term comparison of the influence of organic and conventional crop management practices on the content of the glycoalkaloid α-tomatine in tomatoes. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2013; 93:1537-42. [PMID: 23138335 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.5951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2012] [Revised: 09/25/2012] [Accepted: 10/15/2012] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND α-Tomatine, synthesized by Lycopersicon and some Solanum species, is a steroidal glycoalkaloid which functions to protect against pathogens and insects. Although glycoalkaloids are generally considered toxic, α-tomatine appears to be well tolerated in humans. α-Tomatine has numerous potential health benefits including the ability to inhibit cancer cell growth in in vitro studies. α-Tomatine is influenced by numerous agronomic factors including fertilization and nitrogen availability. Herein, the levels of α-tomatine were compared in dried tomato samples (Lycopersicon esculentum L. cv. Halley 3155) produced in organic and conventional cropping systems that had been archived over the period from 1994 to 2004 from the Long Term Research on Agricultural Systems project (LTRAS) at UC Davis. RESULTS The α-tomatine levels of tomatoes in both cropping systems ranged from 4.29 to 111.85 µg g(-1) dry weight. Mean levels of α-tomatine were significantly higher in the organically grown tomatoes than conventional ones (P < 0.001). In the organic management system, α-tomatine content was also significantly (P < 0.001) different between cropping years, suggesting that other influencing factors such as environmental conditions also affect α-tomatine content in tomato. CONCLUSIONS The organically produced tomatoes had higher average α-tomatine content than their conventional counterpart over the 10-year study. Significant annual variability in the α-tomatine content in tomatoes was also observed and suggests that environmental factors, external to nitrogen fertilization, influence α-tomatine content in tomatoes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunmi Koh
- Department of Food Science and Technology, One Shields Avenue, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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Itkin M, Rogachev I, Alkan N, Rosenberg T, Malitsky S, Masini L, Meir S, Iijima Y, Aoki K, de Vos R, Prusky D, Burdman S, Beekwilder J, Aharoni A. GLYCOALKALOID METABOLISM1 is required for steroidal alkaloid glycosylation and prevention of phytotoxicity in tomato. THE PLANT CELL 2011; 23:4507-25. [PMID: 22180624 PMCID: PMC3269880 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.111.088732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2011] [Revised: 11/06/2011] [Accepted: 11/29/2011] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Steroidal alkaloids (SAs) are triterpene-derived specialized metabolites found in members of the Solanaceae family that provide plants with a chemical barrier against a broad range of pathogens. Their biosynthesis involves the action of glycosyltransferases to form steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGAs). To elucidate the metabolism of SGAs in the Solanaceae family, we examined the tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) GLYCOALKALOID METABOLISM1 (GAME1) gene. Our findings imply that GAME1 is a galactosyltransferase, largely performing glycosylation of the aglycone tomatidine, resulting in SGA production in green tissues. Downregulation of GAME1 resulted in an almost 50% reduction in α-tomatine levels (the major SGA in tomato) and a large increase in its precursors (i.e., tomatidenol and tomatidine). Surprisingly, GAME1-silenced plants displayed growth retardation and severe morphological phenotypes that we suggest occur as a result of altered membrane sterol levels caused by the accumulation of the aglycone tomatidine. Together, these findings highlight the role of GAME1 in the glycosylation of SAs and in reducing the toxicity of SA metabolites to the plant cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxim Itkin
- Department of Plant Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Ilana Rogachev
- Department of Plant Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Noam Alkan
- Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel
| | - Tally Rosenberg
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food, and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Sergey Malitsky
- Department of Plant Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Laura Masini
- Plant Research International, Wageningen 6700 AA, The Netherlands
| | - Sagit Meir
- Department of Plant Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Yoko Iijima
- Kazusa DNA Research Institute, Kisarazu 292-0818, Japan
| | - Koh Aoki
- Kazusa DNA Research Institute, Kisarazu 292-0818, Japan
| | - Ric de Vos
- Plant Research International, Wageningen 6700 AA, The Netherlands
| | - Dov Prusky
- Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel
| | - Saul Burdman
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food, and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Jules Beekwilder
- Plant Research International, Wageningen 6700 AA, The Netherlands
| | - Asaph Aharoni
- Department of Plant Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
- Address correspondence to
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Romero I, Tikunov Y, Bovy A. Virus-induced gene silencing in detached tomatoes and biochemical effects of phytoene desaturase gene silencing. JOURNAL OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2011; 168:1129-35. [PMID: 21377758 DOI: 10.1016/j.jplph.2010.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2010] [Revised: 12/27/2010] [Accepted: 12/29/2010] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) is a technology that has rapidly emerged for gene function studies in plants. Many advances have been made in applying this technique in an increasing number of crops. Recently, VIGS has been successfully used to silence genes in tomato fruit through agroinfiltration of fruit attached to the plant. The phytoene desaturase (Pds) gene has been widely used as a reporter gene in VIGS experiments, although little is known about the changes that occur due to its silencing in plants. In this paper, we describe the efficient silencing of the Pds gene through the VIGS approach in detached tomato fruits, which makes the VIGS procedure even more versatile and applicable. After 16 days of agroinfiltration, approximately 75% of the tomatoes showed Pds silencing symptoms, although the distribution of silenced areas was variable among fruits. To study the potential effects caused by Pds silencing in detached tomatoes, carotenoids and other semi-polar secondary metabolites were analyzed using Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. In addition, potential differences in primary metabolites were analyzed using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. The results indicated that the yellow phenotype observed in Pds-silenced fruit was mainly due to the lack of the red-colored lycopene and therefore to a more pronounced contribution of the yellow-orange carotenoids (lutein, violaxanthin, and zeaxanthin) to the final color of the fruits. Furthermore, the biochemical changes observed in Pds-silenced detached tomatoes suggested that carotenoid and other pathways, e.g. leading to alkaloids and flavonoids, might be affected by the silencing of this reporter gene, and this should be taken into consideration for future experimental designs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Romero
- Plant Research International, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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