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Ferlenghi F, Giorgio C, Incerti M, Guidetti L, Chiodelli P, Rusnati M, Tognolini M, Vacondio F, Mor M, Lodola A. Metabolic Soft Spot and Pharmacokinetics: Functionalization of C-3 Position of an Eph-Ephrin Antagonist Featuring a Bile Acid Core as an Effective Strategy to Obtain Oral Bioavailability in Mice. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 15:ph15010041. [PMID: 35056098 PMCID: PMC8779995 DOI: 10.3390/ph15010041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
UniPR129, an L-β-homotryptophan conjugate of the secondary bile acid lithocholic acid (LCA), acts as an effective protein-protein interaction (PPI) inhibitor of the Eph-ephrin system but suffers from a poor oral bioavailability in mice. To improve UniPR129 bioavailability, a metabolic soft spot, i.e., the 3α-hydroxyl group on the LCA steroidal ring, was functionalized to 3-hydroxyimine. In vitro metabolism of UniPR129 and 3-hydroxyimine derivative UniPR500 was compared in mouse liver subcellular fractions, and main metabolites were profiled by high resolution (HR-MS) and tandem (MS/MS) mass spectrometry. In mouse liver microsomes (MLM), UniPR129 was converted into several metabolites: M1 derived from the oxidation of the 3-hydroxy group to 3-oxo, M2-M7, mono-hydroxylated metabolites, M8-M10, di-hydroxylated metabolites, and M11, a mono-hydroxylated metabolite of M1. Phase II reactions were only minor routes of in vitro biotransformation. UniPR500 shared several metabolic pathways with parent UniPR129, but it showed higher stability in MLM, with a half-life (t1/2) of 60.4 min, if compared to a t1/2 = 16.8 min for UniPR129. When orally administered to mice at the same dose, UniPR500 showed an increased systemic exposure, maintaining an in vitro valuable pharmacological profile as an EphA2 receptor antagonist and an overall improvement in its physico-chemical profile (solubility, lipophilicity), if compared to UniPR129. The present work highlights an effective strategy for the pharmacokinetic optimization of aminoacid conjugates of bile acids as small molecule Eph-ephrin antagonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Ferlenghi
- Food and Drug Department, University of Parma, Viale delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy; (F.F.); (C.G.); (M.I.); (L.G.); (M.T.); (A.L.)
| | - Carmine Giorgio
- Food and Drug Department, University of Parma, Viale delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy; (F.F.); (C.G.); (M.I.); (L.G.); (M.T.); (A.L.)
| | - Matteo Incerti
- Food and Drug Department, University of Parma, Viale delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy; (F.F.); (C.G.); (M.I.); (L.G.); (M.T.); (A.L.)
| | - Lorenzo Guidetti
- Food and Drug Department, University of Parma, Viale delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy; (F.F.); (C.G.); (M.I.); (L.G.); (M.T.); (A.L.)
| | - Paola Chiodelli
- Experimental Oncology and Immunology, Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy; (P.C.); (M.R.)
| | - Marco Rusnati
- Experimental Oncology and Immunology, Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy; (P.C.); (M.R.)
| | - Massimiliano Tognolini
- Food and Drug Department, University of Parma, Viale delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy; (F.F.); (C.G.); (M.I.); (L.G.); (M.T.); (A.L.)
| | - Federica Vacondio
- Food and Drug Department, University of Parma, Viale delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy; (F.F.); (C.G.); (M.I.); (L.G.); (M.T.); (A.L.)
- Correspondence: (F.V.); (M.M.); Tel.: +39-0521-905076 (F.V.); +39-0521-905059 (M.M.)
| | - Marco Mor
- Food and Drug Department, University of Parma, Viale delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy; (F.F.); (C.G.); (M.I.); (L.G.); (M.T.); (A.L.)
- Correspondence: (F.V.); (M.M.); Tel.: +39-0521-905076 (F.V.); +39-0521-905059 (M.M.)
| | - Alessio Lodola
- Food and Drug Department, University of Parma, Viale delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy; (F.F.); (C.G.); (M.I.); (L.G.); (M.T.); (A.L.)
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Breijyeh Z, Karaman R. Enzyme Models-From Catalysis to Prodrugs. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26113248. [PMID: 34071328 PMCID: PMC8198240 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26113248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 05/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Enzymes are highly specific biological catalysts that accelerate the rate of chemical reactions within the cell. Our knowledge of how enzymes work remains incomplete. Computational methodologies such as molecular mechanics (MM) and quantum mechanical (QM) methods play an important role in elucidating the detailed mechanisms of enzymatic reactions where experimental research measurements are not possible. Theories invoked by a variety of scientists indicate that enzymes work as structural scaffolds that serve to bring together and orient the reactants so that the reaction can proceed with minimum energy. Enzyme models can be utilized for mimicking enzyme catalysis and the development of novel prodrugs. Prodrugs are used to enhance the pharmacokinetics of drugs; classical prodrug approaches focus on alternating the physicochemical properties, while chemical modern approaches are based on the knowledge gained from the chemistry of enzyme models and correlations between experimental and calculated rate values of intramolecular processes (enzyme models). A large number of prodrugs have been designed and developed to improve the effectiveness and pharmacokinetics of commonly used drugs, such as anti-Parkinson (dopamine), antiviral (acyclovir), antimalarial (atovaquone), anticancer (azanucleosides), antifibrinolytic (tranexamic acid), antihyperlipidemia (statins), vasoconstrictors (phenylephrine), antihypertension (atenolol), antibacterial agents (amoxicillin, cephalexin, and cefuroxime axetil), paracetamol, and guaifenesin. This article describes the works done on enzyme models and the computational methods used to understand enzyme catalysis and to help in the development of efficient prodrugs.
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Huttunen K. Identification of human, rat and mouse hydrolyzing enzymes bioconverting amino acid ester prodrug of ketoprofen. Bioorg Chem 2018; 81:494-503. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2018.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Hanna RD, Naro Y, Deiters A, Floreancig PE. Alcohol, Aldehyde, and Ketone Liberation and Intracellular Cargo Release through Peroxide-Mediated α-Boryl Ether Fragmentation. J Am Chem Soc 2016; 138:13353-13360. [PMID: 27636404 PMCID: PMC7075644 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.6b07890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
α-Boryl ethers, carbonates, and acetals, readily prepared from the corresponding alcohols that are accessed through ketone diboration, react rapidly with hydrogen peroxide to release alcohols, aldehydes, and ketones through the collapse of hemiacetal intermediates. Experiments with α-boryl acetals containing a latent fluorophore clearly demonstrate that cargo can be released inside cells in the presence of exogenous or endogenous hydrogen peroxide. These experiments show that this protocol can be used for drug activation in an oxidative environment without generating toxic byproducts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramsey D. Hanna
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, United States
| | - Yuta Naro
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, United States
| | - Alexander Deiters
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, United States
| | - Paul E. Floreancig
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, United States
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Polymorphic properties of micronized mefenamic acid, nabumetone, paracetamol and tolbutamide produced by rapid expansion of supercritical solutions (RESS). J Supercrit Fluids 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.supflu.2016.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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l -Type amino acid transporter 1 (lat1)-mediated targeted delivery of perforin inhibitors. Int J Pharm 2016; 498:205-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2015.12.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2015] [Revised: 12/09/2015] [Accepted: 12/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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Zhang X, Wang RB, Zhou W, Xiao S, Meng QQ, Li SS. Antitumor activity of DMAKO-05, a novel shikonin derivative, and its metabolism in rat liver microsome. AAPS PharmSciTech 2015; 16:259-66. [PMID: 25273027 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-014-0217-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2014] [Accepted: 09/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The antitumor activity of shikonin derivatives is largely dependent on the generation of superoxide radicals and the alkylation activity of their naphthoquinone moiety. However, our recent study showed that 1,4-dioxime-5,8-dimethoxynaphthalene (DMAKO-05), a novel shikonin derivative, displayed more potential antitumor activity and less toxicity compared to fluorouracil (5-FU) both in vitro and in vivo, even though the hydroxyl and carbonyl groups of its naphthoquinone structure were shielded. To understand the underlying mechanisms, we investigated the metabolism of DMAKO-05 in rat liver microsomes. The kinetic analysis indicated that DMAKO-05 underwent a biphasic metabolism in rat liver microsomes. The inhibition experiments showed that CYP1A and CYP3A were the major enzymes in the metabolism of DMAKO-05, along with partial contribution from CYP2A. In addition, the structures of eight DMAKO-05 metabolites, which were characterized by accurate mass and MS/MS fragmentograms, implied that DMAKO-05 was mainly metabolized through the oxygenation of its naphthoquinone nucleus and the hydrolysis of its side chain, instead of the oxidation of hydroxyimine to ketone. Therefore, DMAKO-05 should not be considered as a traditional naphthoquinone prodrug.
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O'Byrne PM, Williams R, Walsh JJ, Gilmer JF. Synthesis, screening and pharmacokinetic evaluation of potential prodrugs of bupropion. Part one: in vitro development. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2014; 7:595-620. [PMID: 24830986 PMCID: PMC4035770 DOI: 10.3390/ph7050595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2014] [Revised: 04/30/2014] [Accepted: 05/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In general, prodrugs are developed to circumvent deficiencies associated with the absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion or toxicological (ADMET) profile associated with the active drug. In our study, we select bupropion, a drug with broad pharmacology incorporating dopaminergic, noradrenergic, nicotinic and cytokine modulation properties, but which is rapidly metabolized in vivo. We exploited its carbonyl and secondary amine functionality to facilitate the synthesis of bioprecursor prodrug forms with the sole objective of identifying analogues with enhanced properties over bupropion. A range of analogues were synthesized, ranging from N-methyl, N-benzyl, oximes, enol acetate and ether forms to examples where both functional groups were utilized to form oxadiazine, oxadiazinone, oxazolone and acetylated derivatives. We then developed an in vitro metabolic screen to simulate the human oral delivery route for these analogues. The selection of media in the screens contained a variety of pH, enzymatic and co-factor systems which mimic metabolic in vivo environments that drugs encounter when delivered orally. By coupling our in vitro screening tool to a selective hyphenated technique such as LC-MS, we were able to quickly select potential prodrugs for further in vitro and in vivo development. From the data generated, the N-alkylated bupropion analogues were shown to have the highest potential to act as bioprecursor prodrugs of bupropion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Matthew O'Byrne
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Dublin, Trinity College, Dublin 1, Ireland.
| | - Robert Williams
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Dublin, Trinity College, Dublin 1, Ireland.
| | - John J Walsh
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Dublin, Trinity College, Dublin 1, Ireland.
| | - John F Gilmer
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Dublin, Trinity College, Dublin 1, Ireland.
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9
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Karaman R. Prodrugs Design Based on Inter- and Intramolecular Chemical Processes. Chem Biol Drug Des 2013; 82:643-68. [DOI: 10.1111/cbdd.12224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2013] [Revised: 08/13/2013] [Accepted: 08/16/2013] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Rafik Karaman
- Bioorganic Chemistry Department; Faculty of Pharmacy; Al-Quds University; P.O. Box 20002 Jerusalem Palestine
- Department of Science; University of Basilicata; Via dell'Ateneo Lucano 10 85100 Potenza Italy
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Mott BT, Tripathi A, Siegler MA, Moore CD, Sullivan DJ, Posner GH. Synthesis and antimalarial efficacy of two-carbon-linked, artemisinin-derived trioxane dimers in combination with known antimalarial drugs. J Med Chem 2013; 56:2630-41. [PMID: 23425037 DOI: 10.1021/jm400058j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Malaria continues to be a difficult disease to eradicate largely because of the widespread populations it affects and the resistance that malaria parasites have developed against once very potent therapies. The natural product artemisinin has been a boon for antimalarial chemotherapy, as artemisinin combination therapy (ACT) has become the first line of chemotherapy. Because the threat of resistance is always on the horizon, it is imperative to continually identify new treatments, comprising both advanced analogues of all antimalarial drugs, especially artemisinin, and the exploration of novel combinations, ideally with distinct mechanisms of action. Here we report for the first time the synthesis of a series of two-carbon-linked artemisinin-derived dimers, their unique structural features, and demonstration of their antimalarial efficacy via single oral dose administration in two 60-day survival studies of Plasmodium berghei infected mice. Several of the new endoperoxide chemical entities consistently demonstrated excellent antimalarial efficacy, and combinations with two non-peroxide antimalarial drugs have been studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan T Mott
- Department of Chemistry, School of Arts and Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University, 3400 North Charles Street, Baltimore, Maryland, 21218, USA.
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Yamazoe Y, Ito K, Yoshinari K. Construction of a CYP2E1-template system for prediction of the metabolism on both site and preference order. Drug Metab Rev 2012; 43:409-39. [PMID: 22017508 DOI: 10.3109/03602532.2011.624103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
We have constructed an in silico system for the prediction of CYP2E1-mediated reaction using a two-dimensional template derived from substrate structures. Although CYP2E1 prefers small-size molecules for the substrates, the enzyme mediates oxidations of large-size molecules, such as benzo[a]pyrene. Overlays of these substrates, to assemble their sites of oxidation into a specific area, suggested a range of regions frequently occupied. The region, having a benzo[a]pyrene-like shape, was thus used as a CYP2E1 template. In this system, atoms in substrates, except for hydrogen atoms, were placed on corners of honeycomb structures of the template after having expanded the structures. Using published data for the metabolism on more than 80 substrates of CYP2E1, the core template was further refined to verify the adjacent area and to define the relative contribution of template positions for the catalysis. The positions on the template were classified into four different point (0-3) groups, depending on relative usage. In addition, we set independent points (-5 to 3) for specific positions to incorporate three-dimensional or functional information. Total scores from both position-occupancy and -function points were calculated for all the orientations of possible conformers of test substrates, and the scores were found to predict the relative abundance (i.e., order) as well as the regioselectivity of human CYP2E1 reactions with high fidelities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasushi Yamazoe
- Division of Drug Metabolism and Molecular Toxicology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University , Sendai , Japan
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Buckmelter AJ, Ren L, Laird ER, Rast B, Miknis G, Wenglowsky S, Schlachter S, Welch M, Tarlton E, Grina J, Lyssikatos J, Brandhuber BJ, Morales T, Randolph N, Vigers G, Martinson M, Callejo M. The Discovery of furo[2,3-c]pyridine-based indanone oximes as potent and selective B-Raf inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2011; 21:1248-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2010.12.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2010] [Revised: 12/02/2010] [Accepted: 12/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Minutolo F, Macchia M, Katzenellenbogen BS, Katzenellenbogen JA. Estrogen receptor β ligands: Recent advances and biomedical applications. Med Res Rev 2009; 31:364-442. [DOI: 10.1002/med.20186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Foley D, Bailey P, Pieri M, Meredith D. Targeting ketone drugs towards transport by the intestinal peptide transporter, PepT1. Org Biomol Chem 2009; 7:1064-7. [PMID: 19262922 PMCID: PMC2898646 DOI: 10.1039/b818606e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2008] [Accepted: 01/05/2009] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Thiodipeptide prodrugs of the ketone nabumetone are shown to have affinity for, and be transported by, PepT1 in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Foley
- School of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK.
| | - Patrick Bailey
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Keele University, Keele, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, UK. ; Fax: +44 (0)1782 584593; Tel: +44 (0)1782 584583
| | - Myrtani Pieri
- School of Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Headington, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
| | - David Meredith
- School of Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Headington, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
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Turpeinen M, Hofmann U, Klein K, Mürdter T, Schwab M, Zanger UM. A predominate role of CYP1A2 for the metabolism of nabumetone to the active metabolite, 6-methoxy-2-naphthylacetic acid, in human liver microsomes. Drug Metab Dispos 2009; 37:1017-24. [PMID: 19204080 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.108.025700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Nabumetone, a widely used nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, requires biotransformation into 6-methoxy-2-naphthylacetic acid (6-MNA), a close structural analog to naproxen, to achieve its analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects. Despite its wide use, the enzymes involved in metabolism have not been identified. In the present study, several in vitro approaches were used to identify the cytochrome P450 (P450) enzyme(s) responsible for 6-MNA formation. In human liver microsomes (HLMs) 6-MNA formation displayed monophasic Michaelis-Menten kinetics with apparent K(m) and V(max) values (mean +/- S.D.) of 75.1 +/- 15.3 microM and 1304 +/- 226 pmol/min/mg protein, respectively, and formation rate of 6-MNA varied approximately 5.5-fold (179-983 pmol/min/mg protein). 6-MNA activity correlated strongly with both CYP1A2-mediated phenacetin O-deethylation activity and CYP1A2 protein content (r = 0.85 and 0.74, respectively; p < 0.0001 for both). Additional correlations were found with model activities of CYP2C19 and CYP3A4. Of 11 cDNA-expressed recombinant P450s used, recombinant CYP1A2 was the major form catalyzing the 6-MNA formation with an apparent K(m) of 45 microM and V(max) of 8.7 pmol/min/pmol P450. Minor fractions were catalyzed by recombinant P450s CYP1A1, CYP2B6, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, and CYP2E1. Experiments with P450-selective chemical inhibitors and monoclonal anti-P450 antibodies showed that furafylline, a mechanism-based inhibitor CYP1A2, and anti-CYP1A2 antibody markedly inhibited 6-MNA formation, whereas inhibitors for other P450s did not show significant inhibitory effects. Taken together, these studies indicate that the formation of the active metabolite of nabumetone, 6-MNA, is predominantly catalyzed by CYP1A2 in HLMs with only minor contribution of other P450s.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miia Turpeinen
- Dr. Margarete Fischer-Bosch Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Auerbachstrasse 112, D-70376 Stuttgart, Germany.
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Minutolo F, Bertini S, Granchi C, Marchitiello T, Prota G, Rapposelli S, Tuccinardi T, Martinelli A, Gunther JR, Carlson KE, Katzenellenbogen JA, Macchia M. Structural Evolutions of Salicylaldoximes as Selective Agonists for Estrogen Receptor β. J Med Chem 2009; 52:858-67. [DOI: 10.1021/jm801458t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Filippo Minutolo
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università di Pisa, Via Bonanno 6, 56126 Pisa, Italy, Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Simone Bertini
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università di Pisa, Via Bonanno 6, 56126 Pisa, Italy, Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Carlotta Granchi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università di Pisa, Via Bonanno 6, 56126 Pisa, Italy, Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Teresa Marchitiello
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università di Pisa, Via Bonanno 6, 56126 Pisa, Italy, Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Giovanni Prota
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università di Pisa, Via Bonanno 6, 56126 Pisa, Italy, Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Simona Rapposelli
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università di Pisa, Via Bonanno 6, 56126 Pisa, Italy, Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Tiziano Tuccinardi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università di Pisa, Via Bonanno 6, 56126 Pisa, Italy, Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Adriano Martinelli
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università di Pisa, Via Bonanno 6, 56126 Pisa, Italy, Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Jillian R. Gunther
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università di Pisa, Via Bonanno 6, 56126 Pisa, Italy, Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Kathryn E. Carlson
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università di Pisa, Via Bonanno 6, 56126 Pisa, Italy, Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - John A. Katzenellenbogen
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università di Pisa, Via Bonanno 6, 56126 Pisa, Italy, Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Marco Macchia
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università di Pisa, Via Bonanno 6, 56126 Pisa, Italy, Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801
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Diarylmethyloxime and hydrazone derivatives with 5-indolyl moieties as potent inhibitors of tubulin polymerization. Bioorg Med Chem 2008; 16:5952-61. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2008.04.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2008] [Revised: 04/16/2008] [Accepted: 04/23/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Abstract
Prodrugs are bioreversible derivatives of drug molecules that undergo an enzymatic and/or chemical transformation in vivo to release the active parent drug, which can then exert the desired pharmacological effect. In both drug discovery and development, prodrugs have become an established tool for improving physicochemical, biopharmaceutical or pharmacokinetic properties of pharmacologically active agents. About 5-7% of drugs approved worldwide can be classified as prodrugs, and the implementation of a prodrug approach in the early stages of drug discovery is a growing trend. To illustrate the applicability of the prodrug strategy, this article describes the most common functional groups that are amenable to prodrug design, and highlights examples of prodrugs that are either launched or are undergoing human trials.
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Chong SS, Fu Y, Liu L, Guo QX. O−H Bond Dissociation Enthalpies of Oximes: A Theoretical Assessment and Experimental Implications. J Phys Chem A 2007; 111:13112-25. [DOI: 10.1021/jp075699a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sha-Sha Chong
- Department of Chemistry, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China, and Department of Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yao Fu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China, and Department of Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Lei Liu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China, and Department of Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Qing-Xiang Guo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China, and Department of Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
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de Lijser HJP, Hsu S, Marquez BV, Park A, Sanguantrakun N, Sawyer JR. Effect of Structure in Benzaldehyde Oximes on the Formation of Aldehydes and Nitriles under Photoinduced Electron-Transfer Conditions. J Org Chem 2006; 71:7785-92. [PMID: 16995687 DOI: 10.1021/jo061325m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The mechanistic aspects of the photosensitized reactions of a series of benzaldehyde oximes (1a-o) were studied by steady-state (product studies) and laser flash photolysis methods. Nanosecond laser flash photolysis studies have shown that the reaction of the oxime with triplet chloranil (3CA) proceeds via an electron-transfer mechanism provided the free energy for electron transfer (DeltaG(ET)) is favorable; typically, the oxidation potential of the oxime should be below 2.0 V. Substituted benzaldehyde oximes with oxidation potentials greater than 2.0 V quench 3CA at rates that are independent of the substituent and the oxidation potential. The most likely mechanism under these conditions is a hydrogen atom transfer mechanism as this reaction should be dependent on the O-H bond strength only, which is virtually the same for all oximes. Product studies have shown that aldoximes react to give both the corresponding aldehyde and the nitrile. The important intermediate in the aldehyde pathway is the iminoxyl radical, which is formed via an electron transfer-proton transfer (ET-PT) sequence (for oximes with low oxidation potentials) or via a hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) pathway (for oximes with larger oxidation potentials). The nitriles are proposed to result from intermediate iminoyl radicals, which can be formed via direct hydrogen atom abstraction or via an electron-transfer-proton-transfer sequence. The experimental data seems to support the direct hydrogen atom abstraction as evidenced by the break in linearity in the plot of the quenching rates against the oxidation potential, which suggests a change in mechanism. The nitrile product is favored when electron-accepting substituents are present on the benzene ring of the benzaldehyde oximes or when the hydroxyl hydrogen atom is unavailable for abstraction. The latter is the case in pyridine-2-carboxaldoxime (2), where a strong intramolecular hydrogen bond is formed. Other molecules that form weaker intramolecular hydrogen bonds such as 2-furaldehyde oxime (3) and thiophene-2-carboxaldoxime (4) tend to yield increasing amounts of aldehyde.
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Affiliation(s)
- H J Peter de Lijser
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, California State University-Fullerton, Fullerton, California 92834-6866, USA.
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