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Thorn CR, Prestidge CA, Boyd BJ, Thomas N. Pseudomonas Infection Responsive Liquid Crystals for Glycoside Hydrolase and Antibiotic Combination. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2018; 1:281-288. [DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.8b00062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Chelsea R. Thorn
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Science, and ARC Centre for Excellence in Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of South Australia Cancer Research Institute, North Tce, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia
- Biofilm Test Facility, Sansom Institute, University of South Australia, City East Campus, Frome Road, Adelaide, South Australia 5001, Australia
| | - Clive A. Prestidge
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Science, and ARC Centre for Excellence in Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of South Australia Cancer Research Institute, North Tce, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia
| | - Ben J. Boyd
- Drug Delivery Disposition and Dynamics, and ARC Centre for Excellence in Bio-Nano Science and Technology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052 Australia
| | - Nicky Thomas
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Science, and ARC Centre for Excellence in Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of South Australia Cancer Research Institute, North Tce, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia
- Biofilm Test Facility, Sansom Institute, University of South Australia, City East Campus, Frome Road, Adelaide, South Australia 5001, Australia
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Witten J, Ribbeck K. The particle in the spider's web: transport through biological hydrogels. NANOSCALE 2017; 9:8080-8095. [PMID: 28580973 PMCID: PMC5841163 DOI: 10.1039/c6nr09736g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Biological hydrogels such as mucus, extracellular matrix, biofilms, and the nuclear pore have diverse functions and compositions, but all act as selectively permeable barriers to the diffusion of particles. Each barrier has a crosslinked polymeric mesh that blocks penetration of large particles such as pathogens, nanotherapeutics, or macromolecules. These polymeric meshes also employ interactive filtering, in which affinity between solutes and the gel matrix controls permeability. Interactive filtering affects the transport of particles of all sizes including peptides, antibiotics, and nanoparticles and in many cases this filtering can be described in terms of the effects of charge and hydrophobicity. The concepts described in this review can guide strategies to exploit or overcome gel barriers, particularly for applications in diagnostics, pharmacology, biomaterials, and drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob Witten
- Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
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ter Boo GJA, Richards RG, Moriarty TF, Grijpma DW, Eglin D. Hyaluronic acid derivatives and its polyelectrolyte complexes with gentamicin as a delivery system for antibiotics. POLYM ADVAN TECHNOL 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/pat.3915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gert-Jan A. ter Boo
- AO Research Institute Davos; AO Foundation; Clavadelerstrasse 8 CH7270 Davos Switzerland
- Department of Biomaterials Science and Technology; University of Twente; P.O. Box 217 7500 Enschede the Netherlands
| | - Robert G. Richards
- AO Research Institute Davos; AO Foundation; Clavadelerstrasse 8 CH7270 Davos Switzerland
| | - Thomas F. Moriarty
- AO Research Institute Davos; AO Foundation; Clavadelerstrasse 8 CH7270 Davos Switzerland
| | - Dirk W. Grijpma
- Department of Biomaterials Science and Technology; University of Twente; P.O. Box 217 7500 Enschede the Netherlands
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, W.J. Kolff Institute, UMC Groningen; University of Groningen; Hanzeplein 1 9713 GZ Groningen the Netherlands
| | - David Eglin
- AO Research Institute Davos; AO Foundation; Clavadelerstrasse 8 CH7270 Davos Switzerland
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Sagar A, Vidaycharan S, Shinde AH, Sharada DS. Hypervalent iodine(iii)-promoted N-incorporation into N-aryl vinylogous carbamates to quinoxaline diesters: access to 1,4,5,8-tetraazaphenanthrene. Org Biomol Chem 2016; 14:4018-22. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ob00447d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
An oxidative N-incorporation strategy for synthesis of quinoxaline diesters under metal-free and mild reaction conditions is described via the formation of two C(sp2)–N bonds utilizing NaN3 as the cheap N-atom source.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Sagar
- Department of Chemistry
- Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad
- Sangareddy
- India
| | - Shinde Vidaycharan
- Department of Chemistry
- Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad
- Sangareddy
- India
| | - Anand H. Shinde
- Department of Chemistry
- Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad
- Sangareddy
- India
| | - Duddu S. Sharada
- Department of Chemistry
- Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad
- Sangareddy
- India
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Paramjot, Khan NM, Kapahi H, Kumar S, Bhardwaj TR, Arora S, Mishra N. Role of polymer–drug conjugates in organ-specific delivery systems. J Drug Target 2015; 23:387-416. [DOI: 10.3109/1061186x.2015.1016436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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ter Boo GJA, Grijpma DW, Moriarty TF, Richards RG, Eglin D. Antimicrobial delivery systems for local infection prophylaxis in orthopedic- and trauma surgery. Biomaterials 2015; 52:113-25. [PMID: 25818418 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2015.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2014] [Revised: 01/26/2015] [Accepted: 02/01/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Infectious complications occur in a minor but significant portion of the patients undergoing joint replacement surgery or fracture fixation, particularly those with severe open fractures, those undergoing revision arthroplasty or those at elevated risk because of poor health status. Once established, infections are difficult to eradicate, especially in the case of bacterial biofilm formation on implanted hardware. Local antibiotic carriers offer the prospect of controlled delivery of antibiotics directly in target tissues and implant, without inducing toxicity in non-target organs. Polymeric carriers have been developed to optimize the release and targeting of antibiotics. Passive polymeric carriers release antibiotics by diffusion and/or upon degradation, while active polymeric carriers release their antibiotics upon stimuli provided by bacterial pathogens. Additionally, some polymeric carriers gelate in-situ in response to physiological stimuli to form a depot for antibiotic release. As antibiotic resistance has become a major issue, also other anti-infectives such as silver and antimicrobial peptides have been incorporated in research. Currently, several antibiotic loaded biomaterials for local infection prophylaxis are available for use in the clinic. Here we review their advantages and limitations and provide an overview of new materials emerging that may overcome these limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gert-Jan A ter Boo
- AO Research Institute Davos, Clavadelerstrasse 8, CH7270 Davos, Switzerland; Department of Biomaterials Science and Technology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Dirk W Grijpma
- Department of Biomaterials Science and Technology, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands; Department of Biomedical Engineering, W.J. Kolff Institute, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, P.O. Box 196, 9700 AD Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Thomas F Moriarty
- AO Research Institute Davos, Clavadelerstrasse 8, CH7270 Davos, Switzerland
| | - Robert G Richards
- AO Research Institute Davos, Clavadelerstrasse 8, CH7270 Davos, Switzerland
| | - David Eglin
- AO Research Institute Davos, Clavadelerstrasse 8, CH7270 Davos, Switzerland.
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8
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PEG — A versatile conjugating ligand for drugs and drug delivery systems. J Control Release 2014; 192:67-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.06.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 415] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2014] [Revised: 06/23/2014] [Accepted: 06/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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Giorgi ME, Agusti R, de Lederkremer RM. Carbohydrate PEGylation, an approach to improve pharmacological potency. Beilstein J Org Chem 2014; 10:1433-44. [PMID: 24991298 PMCID: PMC4077506 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.10.147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2014] [Accepted: 05/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Conjugation with polyethylene glycol (PEG), known as PEGylation, has been widely used to improve the bioavailability of proteins and low molecular weight drugs. The covalent conjugation of PEG to the carbohydrate moiety of a protein has been mainly used to enhance the pharmacokinetic properties of the attached protein while yielding a more defined product. Thus, glycoPEGylation was successfully applied to the introduction of a PEGylated sialic acid to a preexisting or enzymatically linked glycan in a protein. Carbohydrates are now recognized as playing an important role in host–pathogen interactions in protozoal, bacterial and viral infections and are consequently candidates for chemotherapy. The short in vivo half-life of low molecular weight glycans hampered their use but methods for the covalent attachment of PEG have been less exploited. In this review, information on the preparation and application of PEG-carbohydrates, in particular multiarm PEGylation, is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Eugenia Giorgi
- CIHIDECAR-CONICET, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Pabellón II, Ciudad Universitaria, 1428 Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Rosalía Agusti
- CIHIDECAR-CONICET, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Pabellón II, Ciudad Universitaria, 1428 Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Rosa M de Lederkremer
- CIHIDECAR-CONICET, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Pabellón II, Ciudad Universitaria, 1428 Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Li W, Zhan P, De Clercq E, Lou H, Liu X. Current drug research on PEGylation with small molecular agents. Prog Polym Sci 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2012.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Kimani S, Ghosh G, Ghogare A, Rudshteyn B, Bartusik D, Hasan T, Greer A. Synthesis and characterization of mono-, di-, and tri-poly(ethylene glycol) chlorin e6 conjugates for the photokilling of human ovarian cancer cells. J Org Chem 2012; 77:10638-47. [PMID: 23126407 DOI: 10.1021/jo301889s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
PEGylated chlorin e(6) photosensitizers were synthesized with tri(ethylene glycol) attached at the ester bond(s) for a 1:1 conjugate at the 17(3)-position, a 2:1 conjugate at the 15(2)- and 17(3)-positions, and a 3:1 conjugate at the 13(1)-, 15(2)-, and 17(3)-positions. These chlorin sensitizers were studied for hydrolytic stability and solubility, as well as ovarian OVCAR-5 cancer cell uptake, localization, and phototoxicity. Increasing numbers of the PEG groups in the mono-, di-, and tri-PEG chlorin conjugates increased the water solubility and sensitivity to hydrolysis and uptake into the ovarian cancer cells. The PEG chlorin conjugates accumulated in the cytoplasm and mitrochondria, but not in lysosomes. Higher phototoxicity was roughly correlated with higher numbers of PEG groups, with the tri-PEG chlorin conjugate showing the best overall ovarian cancer cell photokilling of the series. Singlet oxygen lifetimes, solvent deuteration, and the effects of additives azide ion and d-mannitol were examined to help clarify the photokilling mechanisms. A Type-II (singlet oxygen) photosensitized mechanism is suggested for the di- and tri-PEG chlorin conjugates; however, a more complicated process based in part on a Type-I (radicals or radical ions) mechanism is suggested for the parent chlorin e(6) and the mono-PEG chlorin conjugate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanley Kimani
- Department of Chemistry and Graduate Center, City University of New York, Brooklyn College, Brooklyn, New York 11210, USA
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Establishing the principle of reversibility in peptide/protein and small-molecule therapy. Ther Deliv 2012; 3:17-23. [PMID: 22833930 DOI: 10.4155/tde.11.133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Several important pharmacological features can be integrated into injected drugs to enhance their therapeutic efficacy following administration. Short-lived peptide/protein drugs should be converted into long-lived species in vivo to avoid multiple injections. Circulating levels of anticancer agents need to be maintained within a narrow therapeutic range for prolonged period. Water-insoluble drugs must be turned into soluble species and blood-brain barrier-impermeable agents need to be modified to cross it following peripheral administrations. The derivatization requiring for achieving those desirable pharmacological features typically result in biologically/pharmacologically inactive products, unless those derivatizations can be carried out in a reversible fashion.
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Subasinghe NL, Khalil E, Travins JM, Ali F, Ballentine SK, Hufnagel HR, Pan W, Leonard K, Bone RF, Soll RM, Crysler CS, Ninan N, Kirkpatrick J, Kolpak MX, Diloreto KA, Eisennagel SH, Huebert ND, Molloy CJ, Tomczuk BE, Gaul MD. Design and synthesis of polyethylene glycol-modified biphenylsulfonyl-thiophene-carboxamidine inhibitors of the complement component C1s. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2012; 22:5303-7. [PMID: 22795627 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2012.06.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2012] [Revised: 06/05/2012] [Accepted: 06/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Complement C1s protease inhibitors have potential utility in the treatment of diseases associated with activation of the classical complement pathway such as humorally mediated graft rejection, ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI), vascular leak syndrome, and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). The utility of biphenylsulfonyl-thiophene-carboxamidine small-molecule C1s inhibitors are limited by their poor in vivo pharmacokinetic properties. Pegylation of a potent analog has provided compounds with good potency and good in vivo pharmacokinetic properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nalin L Subasinghe
- Janssen Pharmaceutical Research & Development, L.L.C., Welsh & McKean Roads, Spring House, PA 19477, USA.
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Giorgi ME, Ratier L, Agusti R, Frasch ACC, de Lederkremer RM. Improved bioavailability of inhibitors of Trypanosoma cruzi trans-sialidase: PEGylation of lactose analogs with multiarm polyethyleneglycol. Glycobiology 2012; 22:1363-73. [PMID: 22653661 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cws091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The trans-sialidase of Trypanosoma cruzi (TcTS) catalyzes the transfer of sialic acid from host glycoconjugates to terminal β-galactopyranosides in the mucins of the parasite. During infection, the enzyme is actively shed by the parasite to the bloodstream inducing hematological alterations. Lactitol prevents cell apoptosis caused by the TcTS, although it is rapidly eliminated from the circulatory system. Linear polyethyleneglycol (PEG) conjugates of lactose analogs were prepared but their clearance from blood was still quite fast. With the aim of improving their circulating half-lives in vivo, we now synthesized covalent conjugates of eight-arm PEG. The star-shape of these conjugates allows an increase in the molecular weight together with the loading of the active sugar. Two approaches were used for PEGylation of disaccharide derivatives containing β-D-Galp as the non-reducing unit. (1) Amide formation between benzyl β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→6)-2-amino-2-deoxy-α-D-glucopyranoside and a succinimide-activated PEG. (2) Conjugation of lactobionolactone with amino end-functionalized PEG. Two 8-arm PEG derivatives (20 and 40 kDa) were used for each sugar. Substitution of all arms was proved by (1)H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The bioavailability of the conjugates in mice plasma was considerably improved with respect to the 5 kDa linear PEG conjugates retaining their inhibitory properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Eugenia Giorgi
- CIHIDECAR, Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Universitaria, Argentina
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Santi DV, Schneider EL, Reid R, Robinson L, Ashley GW. Predictable and tunable half-life extension of therapeutic agents by controlled chemical release from macromolecular conjugates. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:6211-6. [PMID: 22474378 PMCID: PMC3341049 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1117147109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Conjugation to macromolecular carriers is a proven strategy for improving the pharmacokinetics of drugs, with many stable polyethylene glycol conjugates having reached the market. Stable conjugates suffer several limitations: loss of drug potency due to conjugation, confining the drug to the extracellular space, and the requirement for a circulating conjugate. Current research is directed toward overcoming such limitations through releasable conjugates in which the drug is covalently linked to the carrier through a cleavable linker. Satisfactory linkers that provide predictable cleavage rates tunable over a wide time range that are useful for both circulating and noncirculating conjugates are not yet available. We describe such conjugation linkers on the basis of a nonenzymatic β-elimination reaction with preprogrammed, highly tunable cleavage rates. A set of modular linkers is described that bears a succinimidyl carbonate group for attachment to an amine-containing drug or prodrug, an azido group for conjugation to the carrier, and a tunable modulator that controls the rate of β-eliminative cleavage. The linkers provide predictable, tunable release rates of ligands from macromolecular conjugates both in vitro and in vivo, with half-lives spanning from a range of hours to >1 y at physiological pH. A circulating PEG conjugate achieved a 56-fold half-life extension of the 39-aa peptide exenatide in rats, and a noncirculating s.c. hydrogel conjugate achieved a 150-fold extension. Using slow-cleaving linkers, the latter may provide a generic format for once-a-month dosage forms of potent drugs. The releasable linkers provide additional benefits that include lowering C(max) and pharmacokinetic coordination of drug combinations.
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Zheng Y, Nishikawa M, Ikemura M, Yamashita F, Hashida M. Development of Bone-Targeted Catalase Derivatives for Inhibition of Bone Metastasis of Tumor Cells in Mice. J Pharm Sci 2012; 101:552-7. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.22773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2011] [Revised: 08/29/2011] [Accepted: 09/08/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas J. Forsman
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Åbo Akademi University, FI-20500 Åbo, Finland
| | - Reko Leino
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Åbo Akademi University, FI-20500 Åbo, Finland
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Biedermann F, Rauwald U, Zayed JM, Scherman OA. A supramolecular route for reversible protein-polymer conjugation. Chem Sci 2011. [DOI: 10.1039/c0sc00435a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
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Giorgi ME, Ratier L, Agusti R, Frasch ACC, de Lederkremer RM. Synthesis of PEGylated lactose analogs for inhibition studies on T.cruzi trans-sialidase. Glycoconj J 2010; 27:549-59. [DOI: 10.1007/s10719-010-9300-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2010] [Revised: 06/29/2010] [Accepted: 06/30/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Sasson K, Marcus Y, Lev-Goldman V, Rubinraut S, Fridkin M, Shechter Y. Engineering prolonged-acting prodrugs employing an albumin-binding probe that undergoes slow hydrolysis at physiological conditions. J Control Release 2010; 142:214-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2009.10.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2009] [Revised: 10/21/2009] [Accepted: 10/26/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Rosseto R, Hajdu J. Synthesis of oligo(ethylene glycol) substituted phosphatidylcholines: secretory PLA2-targeted precursors of NSAID prodrugs. Chem Phys Lipids 2010; 163:110-6. [PMID: 19837049 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2009.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2009] [Revised: 10/06/2009] [Accepted: 10/08/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A series of new phosphatidylcholine analogues with structurally modified sn-2-substituents have been prepared. The synthetic compounds include oligo(ethylene glycol) derivatives with chain-terminal pharmacophores that upon catalytic hydrolysis by phospholipase A(2) yielded a series of oligo(ethylene glycol)-conjugates of the respective drugs. The approach here outlined may open a new way to employ OEG derivatives of phospholipids for therapeutic applications as secretory PLA(2)-targeted precursors of prodrugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renato Rosseto
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University, 18111 Nordhoff Street, Northridge, CA 91330-8262, USA
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