A series of fluorene-based two-photon absorbing molecules: synthesis, linear and nonlinear characterization, and bioimaging

Controlling Aggregation-Induced Two-Photon Absorption Enhancement via Intermolecular Interactions

Historically, two-photon absorption (2PA) cross sections reported in the literature have been derived from solution-phase measurements. However, such techniques fail to grasp the implications of how these cross sections can be impacted by varying degrees of aggregation or in the condensed phase as bulk solids or thin films. For a precise determination of how aggregation impacts 2PA at a molecular level, computational methods present themselves as ideal. Herein, a series of quadrupolar π-conjugated dyes were simulated by molecular dynamics (MD) in the gas phase and condensed phase. In the condensed phase, their intermolecular interactions and electronic coupling behavior were fully characterized, both quantitatively and qualitatively. Using quadratic-response time-dependent density functional theory, 2PA cross sections of structures derived from MD trajectories were calculated. Comparisons are made between gas-phase and condensed-phase results, and enhancement factors are defined to show how certain dyes may experience changes in their respective 2PA cross sections as a function of aggregation. It was found that these cross sections depend heavily on conformational locking in the condensed phase and relative stacking arrangements. J-aggregates were associated with enhanced 2PA and H-aggregates with quenched 2PA activity. However, in a highly disordered aggregate, the effects of these stacking arrangements are averaged out of the bulk result, and the effects of conformational locking dominate.

Fluorescent Dynamic Covalent Polymers for DNA Complexation and Templated Assembly

Dynamic covalent polymers (DCPs) offer opportunities as adaptive materials of particular interest for targeting, sensing and delivery of biological molecules. In this view, combining cationic units and fluorescent units along DCP chains is attractive for achieving optical probes for the recognition and delivery of nucleic acids. Here, we report on the design of acylhydrazone-based DCPs combining cationic arginine units with π-conjugated fluorescent moieties based on thiophene-ethynyl-fluorene cores. Two types of fluorescent building blocks bearing neutral or cationic side groups on the fluorene moiety are considered in order to assess the role of the number of cationic units on complexation with DNA. The (chir)optical properties of the building blocks, the DCPs, and their complexes with several types of DNA are explored, providing details on the formation of supramolecular complexes and on their stability in aqueous solutions. The DNA-templated formation of DCPs is demonstrated, which provides new perspectives on the assembly of fluorescent DCP based on the nucleic acid structure.

How do structural factors determine the linear and non-linear optical properties of fluorene-containing quadrupolar fluorophores? A theoretical answer

The linear and non-linear optical properties of the different components of a series of push–push and pull–pull quadrupolar fluorophore derivatives are investigated.

Synthesis, luminescence, and excited-state absorption properties of disubstituted perylene diimide derivatives modified at bay region

Three A-π-A or D-π-D perylene diimide (PDI) derivatives with varied groups on π-conjugate were synthesized and characterized. The photophysical properties of these compounds were systematically studied by spectral experiments and density functional theory calculations. All compounds displayed intense absorption bands at 300-800 nm wavelengths. However, diverse groups on the π-conjugate influenced the UV-vis absorption. Electron-withdrawing groups on PDI-2 caused a slight red shift at the 350-400 nm wavelength and a blue shift after 400 nm wavelength. At the same time, the electron-donating substituents on PDI-3 caused an obvious red shift of this band. These PDI derivatives exhibited emission in solution at room temperature (λ_em  = 500-850 nm). The quantum yield of PDI-3 decreased, while the electron-donating substituents were introduced to the π-conjugated motifs. However, the quantum yield of PDI-2 increased when electron-withdrawing substituents were introduced to the π-conjugated motifs. In addition, PDI-1 and PDI-2 exhibited broad triplet transient absorption in the visible region. These photophysical properties could help us to understand the relationship between structure and photophysical properties of perylene diimide derivatives and exploit more original perylene diimide-based optical functional materials.

A generalized few-state model for the first hyperpolarizability

The properties of molecules depend on their chemical structure, and thus, structure-property relations help design molecules with desired properties. Few-state models are often used to interpret experimental observations of non-linear optical properties. Not only the magnitude but also the relative orientation of the transition dipole moment vectors is needed for few-state models of the non-linear optical properties. The effect of the relative orientation of the transition dipole moment vectors is called dipole alignment, and this effect has previously been studied for multiphoton absorption properties. However, so far, no such studies are reported for the first hyperpolarizability. Here, we present a generalized few-state model for the static and dynamic first hyperpolarizability β, accounting for the effect of dipole alignment. The formulas derived in this work are general in the sense that they can be used for any few-state model, i.e., a two-state model, a three-state model, or, in general, an n-state model. Based on the formulas, we formulate minimization and maximization criteria for the alignment of transition dipole moment vectors. We demonstrate the importance of dipole alignment by applying the formulas to the static first hyperpolarizability of ortho-, meta-, and para-nitroaniline. The formulas and the analysis provide new ways to understand the structure-property relationship for β and can hence be used to fine-tune the magnitude of β in a molecule.

Physical mechanism of the photoinduced charge transfer in multibranched compounds during one- and two-photon absorption

The physical mechanism of the photoinduced charge transfer of D-A-type multibranched compounds with 1,3,5-triazine as the core are studied. The molecular configuration of the new 1,3,5-triazine derivative appears as the strip-type, V-type and triangular-axis-type with an increase in the number of branches, where the charge is transferred in each branch from tail dimethylamine to center 1,3,5-triazine. One-photon absorption (OPA) and two-photon absorption (TPA) gradually increase due to the enhancement of the commonality of the system plane and of the charge transfer path. The triangular-axis-type molecule is highly symmetrical, which causes the first and second excited states to be degenerate; the charge transfer occurs in the dual- and triple-chain of the first excited state and in the single-chain of the second excited state.

Two-Photon Absorption and Cell Imaging of Fluorene-Functionalized Epicocconone Analogues

Epicocconone 1 is a natural chromophore isolated from the fungus Epicoccum nigrum that has shown applications in proteomics and fluorescent microscopy thanks to its unique pro-fluorescence properties. The modification of the skeleton of the natural product by replacing the triene side chain by a fluorenyl scaffold can noticeably increase the fluorophore's absorption coefficient. The synthesis of the analogues of the natural product has been made possible by the use of a palladium-catalyzed carbonylation reaction, allowing the construction of the β-keto-dioxinone key intermediate. Two-photon absorption cross-section measurements of the fluorenyl epicocconone analogues show a structure dependency with values ranging from 60 to 280 GM and live cell imaging show intense staining of intracellular vesicle-like structures around the nucleus.

Aggregates of quadrupolar dyes for two-photon absorption: the role of intermolecular interactions

We present a theoretical investigation of small aggregates of quadrupolar (A-π-D-π-A or D-π-A-π-D) charge-transfer dyes, with attention focused on the role of intermolecular interactions in determining their optical properties. We tackle the theoretical issue by adopting essential-state models (ESMs), which describe an isolated molecule in terms of a minimal number of electronic states, corresponding to the resonance structures. ESMs quite naturally describe intermolecular interactions relaxing the dipolar approximation and accounting for molecular polarizabilities. The approach is applied to curcuminoid and squaraine dyes, two families of chromophores with weak and strong quadrupolar character, respectively. The method is validated against experiment and for curcuminoids also against time-dependent density functional theory. ESMs rationalize the strong ultra-excitonic effects recurrently observed in the experimental optical spectra of aggregates of highly polarizable quadrupolar dyes, offering a valuable tool to exploit the supramolecular design of material properties.

Exploring the hidden potential of a benzothiazole-based Schiff-base exhibiting AIE and ESIPT and its activity in pH sensing, intracellular imaging and ultrasensitive & selective detection of aluminium (Al3+)

The hidden potential of an AIE-ESIPT active, simple substituted benzothiazole compound has been explored.

Dipolar Dyes with a Pyrrolo[2,3-b]quinoxaline Skeleton Containing a Cyano Group and a Bridged Tertiary Amino Group: Synthesis, Solvatofluorochromism, and Bioimaging

Two strongly polarized dipolar chromophores possessing a cyclic tertiary amino group at one terminus of the molecule and a CN group at the opposite terminus were designed and synthesized. Their rigid skeleton contains the rarely studied pyrrolo[2,3-b]quinoxaline ring system. The photophysical properties of these regioisomeric dyes were different owing to differing π conjugation between the CN group and the electron-donor moiety. These dipolar molecules showed very intense emission, strong solvatofluorochromism, and sufficient two-photon brightness for bioimaging. One of these regioisomeric dyes, namely, 11-carbonitrile-2,3,4,5,6,7-hexahydro-1H-3a,8,13,13b-tetraazabenzo[b]cyclohepta[1,2,3-jk]fluorene, was successfully utilized in two-photon imaging of mouse organ tissues and showed distinct tissue morphology with high resolution.

Synthesis, optical and electrochemical properties of 2-[(9H-fluoren-2-yl)aryl]-1H-benz[d]imidazole and 2,7-bis[(1H-benz[d]imidazol-2-yl)aryl]- 9H-fluorene derivatives

A series of 2-[(9H-fluoren-2-yl)aryl]-1H-benzo[d]imidazoles 11–13 and 2,7-bis[(1H-benzo[d]imidazol-2-yl)aryl]-9H-fluorenes 14–16 containing different linking aromatic units were synthesized in good yields. Their absorption and fluorescence properties were investigated in solution and in the solid state. Most compounds possess good fluorescence-emitting ability with φFL values in the region of 0.31–0.99 in solution and display strong blue emission. Structure–optical behavior characteristics and further details of the electronic properties from cyclic voltammetry measurements and theoretical calculations are discussed.

Theoretical investigation and design of two-photon fluorescent probes for visualizing β-galactosidase activity in living cells

The two-photon fluorescent probes show dual signal for β-gal bio-imaging.

Mechanism of excited state deactivation of indan-1-ylidene and fluoren-9-ylidene malononitriles

A joint experimental and computational study on the non-radiative double bond isomerisation decay channel of indan-1-ylidene malononitrile and fluoren-9-ylidene malononitrile is presented in this work.

Ultrafast spectroscopy, superluminescence and theoretical modeling of a two-photon absorbing fluorene derivative

Linear and nonlinear optical properties and photostability of a fluorene derivative are studied and rationalized within essential state models.

Luminescent Quadrupolar Borazine Oligomers: Synthesis, Photophysics, and Two-Photon Absorption Properties

A set of monodisperse bent donor-acceptor-donor-type conjugated borazine oligomers, BnNn+1 (n=1-4), incorporating electron-rich triarylamine donor and electron-deficient triarylborane acceptor units has been prepared through an iterative synthetic approach that takes advantage of highly selective silicon-boron and tin-boron exchange reactions. The effect of chain elongation on the electrochemical, one- and two-photon properties and excited-state photodynamics has been investigated. Strong intramolecular charge transfer (ICT) from the arylamine donors to boryl-centered acceptor sites results in emissions with high quantum yields (Φfl >0.5) in the range of 400-500 nm. Solvatochromic effects lead to solvent shifts as large as ∼70 nm for the shortest member (n=1) and gradually decrease with chain elongation. The oligomers exhibit strong two-photon absorption (2PA) in the visible spectral region with 2PA cross sections as large as 1410 GM (n=4), and broadband excited-state absorption (ESA) attributed to long-lived singlet-singlet and radical cation/anion absorption. The excited-state dynamics also show sensitivity to the solvent environment. Electrochemical observations and DFT calculations (B3LYP/6-31G*) reveal spatially separated HOMO and LUMO levels resulting in highly fluorescent oligomers with strong ICT character. The BnNn+1 oligomers have been used to demonstrate the detection of cyanide anions with association constants of log K>7.

Regioselective Substitution at the 1,3- and 6,8-Positions of Pyrene for the Construction of Small Dipolar Molecules

This article presents a novel asymmetrical functionalization strategy for the construction of dipolar molecules via efficient regioselective functionalization along the Z-axis of pyrene at both the 1,3- and 6,8-positions. Three asymmetrically substituted 1,3-diphenyl-6,8-R-disubsituted pyrenes were fully characterized by X-ray crystallography, photophysical properties, electrochemistry, and density functional theory calculations.

Novel polyamides with fluorene-based triphenylamine: electrofluorescence and electrochromic properties

A series of novel organosoluble polyamides (4a–4e) bearing fluorene-based triphenylamine unit were prepared. These polyamides showed improved stability of electrochromic and electro-switchable fluorescence properties.

The "excited state C-C bond cleavage-luminescence" phenomenon of a biphenyl-substituted methylenecyclopropane triggered by intermolecular energy transfer from triplet benzophenone

Existence of the "excited state C-C bond cleavage-luminescence" phenomenon was demonstrated by utilizing intermolecular energy transfer from the excited-triplet benzophenone to 2,2-di(4-biphenylyl)-1-methylenecyclopropane (3). An excellent linear relationship between the intensity of the excitation laser light and that of luminescence clearly shows that formation of the corresponding excited trimethylenemethane biradical (3)4˙˙* proceeds via a one-photon route.

Multiphoton excited fluorescent materials for frequency upconversion emission and fluorescent probes

Recent progress in developing various strategies for exploiting efficient MPA fluorophores for two emerging technological MPA applications including frequency upconversion photoluminescence and lasing as well as 2PA fluorescence bioimaging and biosensing are presented. An intriguing application of MPA frequency-upconverted lasing offers opportunity for the fabrication of high-energy coherent light sources in the blue region which could create new advantages and breakthroughs in various laser-based applications. In addition, multiphoton excitation has led to considerable progress in the development of advanced diagnostic and therapeutic treatments; further advancement is anticipated with the emergence of various versatile 2PA fluorescence probes. It is widely appreciated that the two-photon excitation offers significant advantages for the biological fluorescence imaging and sensing which includes higher spatial resolution, less photobleaching and photodamage as well as deeper tissue penetration as compared to the one-photon excited microscopy. To be practically useful, the 2PA fluorescent probes for biological applications are required to have a site-specificity, a high fluorescence quantum yield, proper two-photon excitation and subsequent emission wavelengths, good photodecomposition stability, water solubility, and biocompatibility besides large 2PA action cross-sections.

Nonlinear optical properties of multipyrrole dyes

The nonlinear optical properties of a series of pyrrolic compounds consisting of BODIPY and aza-BODIPY systems are investigated using 532 nm nanosecond laser and the Z-scan technique. Results show that 3,5-distyryl extension of BODIPY to the red shifted MeO₂BODIPY dye has a dramatic impact on its nonlinear absorption properties changing it from a saturable absorber to an efficient reverse saturable absorbing material with a nonlinear absorption coefficient of 4.64 × 10^-10 m/W. When plotted on a concentration scale per mole of dye in solution MeO₂BODIPY far outperforms the recognized zinc(II) phthalocyanine dye and is comparable to that of zinc(II) tetraphenylporphyrin.

Two-photon polarity probes built from octupolar fluorophores: synthesis, structure-properties relationships, and use in cellular imaging

A series of octupolar fluorophores built from a triphenylamine (TPA) core connected to electron-withdrawing (EW) peripheral groups through conjugated spacers has been synthesized. Their photoluminescence, solvatochromism, and two-photon absorption (2PA) properties were systematically investigated to derive structure-property relationships. All derivatives exhibit two 2PA bands in the 700-1000 nm region: a first band at low energy correlated with a core-to-periphery intramolecular charge transfer that leads to an intense 1PA in the blue-visible range, and a second more intense band at higher energy due to an efficient coupling of the branches through the TPA core. Increasing the strength of the EW end groups or the length of the conjugated spacers and replacing triple-bond linkers with double bonds induces both enhancement and broadening of the 2PA responses, thereby leading to cross-sections up to 2100 GM at peak and higher than 1000 GM over the whole 700-900 nm range. All derivatives exhibit intense photoluminescence (PL) in low- to medium-polarity environments (with quantum yields in the 0.5-0.9 range) and display a strong positive solvatochromic behavior (with Lippert-Mataga specific shifts ranging from 15,000 to 27,500 cm(-1)), triple bonds, and phenyl moieties in the conjugated spacers, thereby leading to larger sensitivities than those of double bonds and thienyl moieties. More hydrophilic derivatives were also shown to be biocompatible, to retain their 2PA and PL properties in biological conditions, and finally to be suitable as polarity sensors for multiphoton cell imaging.

Coordination programming of photofunctional molecules

Our recent achievements relating to photofunctional molecules are addressed. Section 1 discloses a new concept of photoisomerization. Pyridylpyrimidine-copper complexes undergo a ring inversion that can be modulated by the redox state of the copper center. In combination with an intermolecular photoelectron transfer (PET) initiated by the metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT) transition of the Cu(I) state, we realize photonic regulation of the ring inversion. Section 2 reports on the first examples of heteroleptic bis(dipyrrinato)zinc(II) complexes. Conventional homoleptic bis(dipyrrinato)zinc(II) complexes suffered from low fluorescence quantum yields, whereas the heteroleptic ones feature bright fluorescence even in polar solvents. Section 3 describes our new findings on Pechmann dye, which was first synthesized in 1882. New synthetic procedures for Pechmann dye using dimethyl bis(arylethynyl)fumarate as a starting material gives rise to its new structural isomer. We also demonstrate potentiality of a donor-acceptor-donor type of Pechmann dye in organic electronics.

Synthesis, crystal structure and two-photon excited fluorescence properties of three aurone derivatives

Three aurone derivatives, Z-2-[(4-N,N-dimethylaminophenyl)methylene] benzofuran-3-one (1), Z-2-[(N-ethylcarbazol-3-yl)methylene]benzofuran-3-one (2) and Z-2-[(pyren-1-yl)methylene]benzofuran-3-one (3) have been synthesized by the cyclization of 2'-hydroxychalcones. Their crystal structure, single- and two-photon related absorption and fluorescence properties have been examined. Pumped by 860 nm laser pulses in femtosecond regime, the compounds exhibit strong yellow-green two-photon excited fluorescence at 539 nm (1), 505 nm (2) and 524 nm (3) in THF with two-photon absorption (TPA) cross-section being 1536GM (1), 608GM (2) and 236GM (3).

Selective cell death by photochemically induced pH imbalance in cancer cells

Singlet oxygen sensitized photodynamic therapy (PDT) relies on the concentration of oxygen in the tissue to be treated. Most cancer lesions, however, have poor vasculature and, as a result, are hypoxic, significantly hindering PDT efficacies. An oxygen-independent PDT method may circumvent this limitation. To address this, we prepared sulfonium salts that produced a pH drop within HCT 116 cells via the generation of a photoacid within the cytosol. This process was driven by one- or two-photon absorption (1PA or 2PA) of the endocytosed photoacid generators (PAGs). One of these PAGs, which had a significantly lower dark cytotoxicity and was more efficient in generating a photoacid, effectively induced necrotic cell death in the HCT 116 cells. The data suggest that PAGs may be an attractive alternative PDT modality to selectively induce cell death in oxygen-deprived tissue such as tumors.

Two-photon excited fluorescence of silica nanoparticles loaded with a fluorene-based monomer and its cross-conjugated polymer: their application to cell imaging

In this work the two-photon activity of nanoparticles obtained from a fluorene monomer (M1) and its cross-conjugated polymer (P1) is reported. Aqueous suspensions of M1 and P1 nanoparticles prepared through the reprecipitation method exhibited maximum two-photon absorption (TPA) cross-sections of 84 and 9860 GM (1 GM = 10(-50) cm(4) s) at 740 nm, respectively, and a fluorescence quantum yield of ~1. Such a two-photon activity was practically equal with respect to that for molecular solutions of M1 and P1. These materials were then successfully encapsulated into silica nanoparticles to provide bio-compatibly. A lung cancer cell line (A549) and a human cervical cancer cell line (HeLa cells) were incubated with our fluorescent silica nanoparticles to carry out two-photon imaging. By means of these studies we demonstrate that optimized nonlinear optical polymers loaded in silica nanoparticles can be used as efficient probes with low cytotoxicity and good photostability for two-photon fluorescence microscopy. To the best of our knowledge, studies concerning polymer-doped silica nanoparticles exhibiting large two-photon activity have not been reported in the literature.

Octupolar merocyanine dyes: a new class of nonlinear optical chromophores

A set of new octupolar merocyanine chromophores was designed and synthesized. These compounds were prepared from the reaction of 1,3,5-triformyl-2,4,6-trihydroxybenzene with heterocyclic nucleophiles. Octupolar dyes were formed exclusively in their open-dye form. The one- and two-photon-absorption spectra of the dyes consist of two bands: The long-wavelength band in the two-photon absorption spectrum (a few hundreds GM above 1000 nm) matches well with the intense, long-wavelength-absorption band that is located in the visible region in the linear spectrum. Interestingly, an additional, much-more-intense TPA band in the NIR region is observed at higher energy, which corresponds to a weakly allowed one-photon electronic transition. Changing the peripheral heterocyclic moieties allows tuning of the optical properties to approach the cyanine limit (i.e., polymethine state), thus resulting in a red-shift of the low-energy one-photon-absorption band as well as to the rise of an intense two-photon-absorption band in the NIR region. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first synthesis and TPA characterization of octupolar merocyanine chromophores with typical low-bond-length alternation.

Two-photon fluorescence vascular bioimaging with new bioconjugate probes selective toward the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2

We report the synthesis and characterization of two amine reactive fluorescent dyes with efficient two-photon absorption (2PA) properties and high fluorescence quantum yields. Bioconjugation of these dyes with the DC-101 antibody proved to be useful for selectively imaging the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR-2) in cells expressing this receptor in vitro and in "whole" mounted excised tumors (ex vivo) by two-photon fluorescence microscopy (2PFM). The penetration depths reached within the tumors by 2PFM was over 800 μm. In addition, the concentration of dye required for incubation of these bioconjugates was in the picomolar domain, the probes possessed very good photostability, and the 2PFM setup did not require any additional means of increasing the collection efficiencies of fluorescent photons to achieve the relatively deep tissue imaging that was realized, due, in large part, to the favorable photophysical properties of the new probes.

Benzothiazoles with tunable electron-withdrawing strength and reverse polarity: a route to triphenylamine-based chromophores with enhanced two-photon absorption

A series of dipolar and octupolar triphenylamine-derived dyes containing a benzothiazole positioned in the matched or mismatched fashion have been designed and synthesized via palladium-catalyzed Sonogashira cross-coupling reactions. Linear and nonlinear optical properties of the designed molecules were tuned by an additional electron-withdrawing group (EWG) and by changing the relative positions of the donor and acceptor substituents on the heterocyclic ring. This allowed us to examine the effect of positional isomerism and extend the structure-property relationships useful in the engineering of novel heteroaromatic-based systems with enhanced two-photon absorption (TPA). The TPA cross-sections (δ(TPA)) in the target compounds dramatically increased with the branching of the triphenylamine core and with the strength of the auxiliary acceptor. In addition, a change from the commonly used polarity in push-pull benzothiazoles to a reverse one has been revealed as a particularly useful strategy (regioisomeric control) for enhancing TPA cross-sections and shifting the absorption and emission maxima to longer wavelengths. The maximum TPA cross-sections of the star-shaped three-branched triphenylamines are ∼500-2300 GM in the near-infrared region (740-810 nm); thereby the molecular weight normalized δ(TPA)/MW values of the best performing dyes within the series (2.0-2.4 GM·g(-1)·mol) are comparable to those of the most efficient TPA chromophores reported to date. The large TPA cross-sections combined with high emission quantum yields and large Stokes shifts make these compounds excellent candidates for various TPA applications, including two-photon fluorescence microscopy.

Folate receptor-targeted aggregation-enhanced near-IR emitting silica nanoprobe for one-photon in vivo and two-photon ex vivo fluorescence bioimaging

A two-photon absorbing (2PA) and aggregation-enhanced near-infrared (NIR) emitting pyran derivative, encapsulated in and stabilized by silica nanoparticles (SiNPs), is reported as a nanoprobe for two-photon fluorescence microscopy (2PFM) bioimaging that overcomes the fluorescence quenching associated with high chromophore loading. The new SiNP probe exhibited aggregate-enhanced emission producing nearly twice as strong a signal as the unaggregated dye, a 3-fold increase in two-photon absorption relative to the DFP in solution, and approximately 4-fold increase in photostability. The surface of the nanoparticles was functionalized with a folic acid (FA) derivative for folate-mediated delivery of the nanoprobe for 2PFM bioimaging. Surface modification of SiNPs with the FA derivative was supported by zeta potential variation and (1)H NMR spectral characterization of the SiNPs as a function of surface modification. In vitro studies using HeLa cells expressing a folate receptor (FR) indicated specific cellular uptake of the functionalized nanoparticles. The nanoprobe was demonstrated for FR-targeted one-photon in vivo imaging of HeLa tumor xenograft in mice upon intravenous injection of the probe. The FR-targeting nanoprobe not only exhibited highly selective tumor targeting but also readily extravasated from tumor vessels, penetrated into the tumor parenchyma, and was internalized by the tumor cells. Two-photon fluorescence microscopy bioimaging provided three-dimensional (3D) cellular-level resolution imaging up to 350 μm deep in the HeLa tumor.

Two-photon fluorescence lysosomal bioimaging with a micelle-encapsulated fluorescent probe

We report two-photon fluorescence microscopy (2PFM) imaging and in vitro cell viability of a new, efficient, lysosome-selective system based on a two-photon absorbing (2PA) fluorescent probe (I) encapsulated in Pluronic® F-127 micelles. Preparation of dye I was accomplished via microwave-assisted synthesis, resulting in improved yields and reduced reaction times. Photophysical characterization revealed notable 2PA efficiency of this probe.

Synthesis and characterizations of star-shaped octupolar triazatruxenes-based two-photon absorption chromophores

A series of star-shaped octupolar triazatruxenes (TATs, 1-6) with intramolecular "push-pull" structure were synthesized and their photophysical properties have been systematically investigated. These chromophores showed obvious solvatochromic effect, i.e., significant bathochromic shift of the emission spectra and larger Stokes shifts were observed in more polar solvents mainly due to photoinduced intramolecular charge transfer (ICT). The two-photon absorption (2PA) cross-section values were determined by two-photon excited fluorescence (2PEF) measurements in toluene and THF. These chromophores exhibited large two-photon absorption cross-sections ranging from 280 to 1620 GM in the near-infrared (NIR) region. Compound 6 showed the largest 2PA action cross-section (σ(2)Φ) of 564 GM and could be a potential two-photon fluorescent (2PF) probe. In addition, compounds 1-6 all displayed good thermal stability and photostability.