Zinc Tetrafluoroborate Hydrate as a Mild Catalyst for Epoxide Ring Opening with Amines: Scope and Limitations of Metal Tetrafluoroborates and Applications in the Synthesis of Antihypertensive Drugs (RS)/(R)/(S)-Metoprolols

Zinc Tetrafluoroborate Catalyzed Stereo- and Regioselective O-Glycosylation for the Direct Synthesis of β-Glycosides from Armed O-Glycosyl Trichloroacetimidates

Efficient stereo- and regioselective O-glycosylation methods remain essential to capacitate the studies of sugars and sugar derivatives in various disciplines. In this work, we demonstrated an operationally simple and cost-effective strategy for the synthesis of 1,2-trans glycosides by the activation of armed O-glycosyl trichloroacetimidates donor using zinc tetrafluoroborate. This mild, transition metal-free, and scalable approach allowed stereo- and regioselective synthesis of β-glycosides with a wide range of acceptors containing various protecting groups/functionalities. This method is exemplified by synthesizing a branched trisaccharide fragment related to the cell wall O-polysaccharide of E. Coli O27.

Click Chemistry: Reaction Rates and Their Suitability for Biomedical Applications

Click chemistry has become a commonly used synthetic method due to the simplicity, efficiency, and high selectivity of this class of chemical reactions. Since their initial discovery, further click chemistry methods have been identified and added to the toolbox of click chemistry reactions for biomedical applications. However, selecting the most suitable reaction for a specific application is often challenging, as multiple factors must be considered, including selectivity, reactivity, biocompatibility, and stability. Thus, this review provides an overview of the benefits and limitations of well-established click chemistry reactions with a particular focus on the importance of considering reaction rates, an often overlooked criterion with little available guidance. The importance of understanding each click chemistry reaction beyond simply the reaction speed is discussed comprehensively with reference to recent biomedical research which utilized click chemistry. This review aims to provide a practical resource for researchers to guide the selection of click chemistry classes for different biomedical applications.

Bidentate Ligand Driven Intramolecularly Te…O Bonded Organotellurium Cations from Synthesis, Stability to Catalysis

A new series of unsymmetrical phenyl tellurides derived from 2-N-(quinolin-8-yl) benzamide ligand has been synthesized in a practical manner by the copper-catalyzed method by using diaryl ditelluride and Mg as a reductant at room temperature. In order to augment the Lewis acidity of these newly formed unsymmetrical monotellurides, these have been transformed into corresponding unsymmetrical 2-N-(quinolin-8-yl)benzamide tellurium cations. Subsequently, these Lewis acidic tellurium cations were used as chalcogen bonding catalysts, enabling the synthesis of various substituted 1,2-dihydroquinolines by activating ketones with anilines under mild conditions. Moreover, the synthesized 2-N-(quinolin-8-yl)benzamide phenyl tellurium cation has also catalyzed the formation of β-amino alcohols in high regioselectivity by effectively activating epoxides at room temperature. Mechanistic insight by 1 H and 19 F NMR study, electrostatic surface potential (ESP map), control reaction in which tellurium cation reacted explosively with epoxide, suggested that the enhanced Lewis acidity of tellurium center seems responsible for efficient catalytic activities under mild conditions enabling β-amino alcohols with excellent regioselectivity and 1,2-dihydroquinolines with trifluoromethyl, nitro, and pyridylsubstitution, which were difficult to access.

Mechanistic insight into homogeneous catalytic crosslinking behavior between cellulose and epoxide by explicit solvent models

Inspired by recent advances on functional modification of cellulosic materials, the crosslinking behaviors of epoxide with cellulose under the catalysis of different homogeneous catalysts including H2O, Brønsted acid, Brønsted base, Lewis acid and neutral salt were systematically investigated using density functional theory (DFT) methods with hybrid micro-solvation-continuum approach. The results showed that catalytic activity, reaction mechanism and regioselectivity are determined by the combined effect of catalyst type, electronic effect and steric hindrance. All the homogeneous catalysts have catalytic activity for the crosslinking reaction, which decreases in the order of NaOH > HCl > NCl3 > MCl2 > CH3COOH > NaCl (N = Fe3+, Al3+; M = Zn2+, Ca2+). Upon the catalysis of NaOH, hydroxyl group of cellulose is firstly deprotonated to form a carbanion-like intermediate which will further attack the less sterically hindered C atom of epoxide showing excellent regioselectivity. Acidic catalysts readily cause epoxide protonated, which suffers from nucleophilic attack of cellulose and forms the carbocation-like intermediate. Brønsted acid exhibits poor regioselectivity, however, Lewis acid shows an interesting balance between catalytic activity and regioselectivity for the crosslinking reaction, which may be attributed to the unique catalysis and stabilization effects of its coordinated H2O on the transition state structure.

Zinc Tetrafluoroborate-Mediated Ring Expansion of trans-Aziridine-2-carboxylates to cis-2-Iminothiazolidines and cis-Thiazolidine-2-iminium Tetrafluoroborates and Evaluation of Antimicrobial Activity

Cis-2-iminothiazolidines and cis-thiazolidine-2-iminium tetrafluoroborates were successfully produced from trans-N-alkyl aziridine-2-carboxylates and phenyl/alkyl isothiocyanates mediated by zinc tetrafluoroborate in refluxing DCE. Reactions were performed via a complete regio- and stereoselective process to give the title iminothiazolidines and cis-thiazolidine-2-iminium salts in moderate to good yields (35 to 82%) with a wide substrate scope. In addition, the antibacterial activity evaluation of these compounds, as well as the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) determination, revealed that only four cis-thiazolidine-2-iminium salts showed growth inhibition against Bacillus cereus.

Design and synthesis of dual cathepsin L and S inhibitors and antimetastatic activity evaluation in pancreatic cancer cells

Currently, the migration and invasion of cancer cells remain the main factors of poor prognosis in the majority of cancer patients. Developing an effective antimetastatic agent is crucial for cancer therapy. Our recent research revealed that Cat L and S are expressed concurrently in metastatic pancreatic cancer cells. Asperphenamate analog ASPER-29, which exhibits dual Cat L and S inhibitory potency, showed a definite antimetastatic effect on pancreatic cancer BxPC-3 and PANC-1 cells. To further improve the antimetastatic ability of asperphenamate-type molecules, 24 derivatives were designed and synthesized by a scaffold-hopping strategy. The cathepsin inhibitory activity assay results showed that most of the derivatives exhibited dual inhibitory effects on Cat L and S. Among all derivatives, Compound B1a showed the strongest inhibitory activity, with IC50 values of 4.10 ± 0.14 μM and 1.79 ± 0.11 μM, which were 1.5-fold and 2.8-fold more potent than those of positive drugs against Cat L and S, respectively. Further wound-healing and transwell chamber assays demonstrated that B1a presented significant antimetastatic ability in vitro.

Synthesis of rare-earth metal complexes with a morpholine-functionalized β-diketiminato ligand and their catalytic activities towards C–O and C–N bond formation

Unusual tridentate β-diketiminato rare-earth metal chlorides LRECl(µ-Cl)2Li(THF)2 (RE = Y (1a), Yb (1b), Lu (1c); L = MeC(NDipp)CHC(Me)N(CH2)2NC4H8O; Dipp = 2,6-iPr2C6H3) and the corresponding dialkyl complexes LRE(CH2SiMe3)2 (RE = Y...

Experimental and Computational Studies of Microwave-Assisted, Facile Ring Opening of Epoxide with Less Reactive Aromatic Amines in Nitromethane

Nucleophilic ring opening reactions of epoxides with aromatic amines are in the forefront of the synthetic organic chemistry research to build new bioactive scaffolds. Here, convenient, green, and highly efficient regioselective ring opening reactions of sterically hindered (2R,3S)-3-(N-Boc-amino)-1-oxirane-4-phenylbutane with various poorly reactive aromatic amines are accomplished under microwave irradiation in nitromethane. All the reactions effectively implemented for various aromatic amines involve the reuse of nitromethane that supports its dual role as a solvent and catalyst. The corresponding new β-alcohol analogs of hydroxyethylamine (HEA) are isolated in 41-98% yields. The reactions proceed under mild conditions for a broad range of less reactive and sterically hindered aromatic amines. Proton NMR experiments suggest that the nucleophilicity of amines is influenced by nitromethane, which is substantiated by the extensive computational studies. Overall, this methodology elucidates the first-time use of nitromethane as a solvent for the ring opening reactions under microwave conditions involving an equimolar ratio of epoxide and aromatic amine without any catalyst, facile ring opening of complex epoxide by less reactive aromatic amines, low reaction time, less energy consumption, recycling of the solvent, and simple workup procedures.

2-Oxiranyl-pyridines: Synthesis and Regioselective Epoxide Ring Openings with Chiral Amines as a Route to Chiral Ligands

New epoxides, derivatives of pyridine, 2,2′-bipyridine, and 1,10-phenanthroline, were synthesized from the respective α-methylazaarenes. The obtained racemic 2-oxiranyl-azaarenes along with styrene oxide and trans-stilbene oxide were submitted to the ring opening with chiral primary amines as a chiral auxiliary. The most effective reaction was run in the presence of Sc(OTf)3/diisopropylethylamine for 7 days at 80°C, affording a good yield of the amino alcohols. Except for styrene oxide which gave both α- and β-amino alcohols, the reactions led regioselectively to the corresponding diastereomeric β-amino alcohols. The resulting diastereomers were separated, and the configurations of their stereogenic centers were established. The obtained enantiomerically pure 2-pyridinyl- and 6-(2,2′-bipyridinyl)-β-amino alcohols were tentatively tested as chiral ligands in the zinc-catalyzed aldol reaction.

Development of covalent antagonists for β1- and β2-adrenergic receptors

The selective covalent tethering of ligands to a specific GPCR binding site has attracted considerable interest in structural biology, molecular pharmacology and drug design. We recently reported on a covalently binding noradrenaline analog (FAUC37) facilitating crystallization of the β₂-adrenergic receptor (β₂AR^H2.64C) in an active state. We herein present the stereospecific synthesis of covalently binding disulfide ligands based on the pharmacophores of adrenergic β₁- and β₂ receptor antagonists. Radioligand depletion experiments revealed that the disulfide-functionalized ligands were able to rapidly form a covalent bond with a specific cysteine residue of the receptor mutants β₁AR^I2.64C and β₂AR^H2.64C. The propranolol derivative (S)-1a induced nearly complete irreversible blockage of the β₂AR^H2.64C within 30 min incubation. The CGP20712A-based ligand (S)-4 showed efficient covalent blocking of the β₂AR^H2.64C at very low concentrations. The analog (S)-5a revealed extraordinary covalent cross-linking at the β₁AR^I2.64C and β₂AR^H2.64C mutant while retaining a 41-fold selectivity for the β₁AR wild type over β₂AR. These compounds may serve as valuable molecular tools for studying β₁/β₂ subtype selectivity or investigations on GPCR trafficking and dimerization.

Hybridization of β-Adrenergic Agonists and Antagonists Confers G Protein Bias

Starting from the β-adrenoceptor agonist isoprenaline and beta-blocker carvedilol, we designed and synthesized three different chemotypes of agonist/antagonist hybrids. Investigations of ligand-mediated receptor activation using bioluminescence resonance energy transfer biosensors revealed a predominant effect of the aromatic head group on the intrinsic activity of our ligands, as ligands with a carvedilol head group were devoid of agonistic activity. Ligands composed of a catechol head group and an antagonist-like oxypropylene spacer possess significant intrinsic activity for the activation of Gα_s, while they only show weak or even no β-arrestin-2 recruitment at both β₁- and β₂-AR. Molecular dynamics simulations suggest that the difference in G protein efficacy and β-arrestin recruitment of the hybrid ( S)-22, the full agonist epinephrine, and the β₂-selective, G protein-biased partial agonist salmeterol depends on specific hydrogen bonding between Ser^5.46 and Asn^6.55, and the aromatic head group of the ligands.

Affinity membrane adsorbers for binding arginine-rich proteins

Delivering protein chemotherapeutics into cancer cells is a challenge. Fusing the protein to an arginine-rich cell-penetrating peptide offers a possible solution. The goal of this work was to develop an affinity membrane for purification of Arg-rich fusion proteins via capture chromatography. Membranes were prepared by grafting polymers bearing diethyl-4-aminobenzyl phosphonate (D4ABP) ligands from macroporous membrane supports. Incorporation of D4ABP was studied by infrared spectroscopy and energy dispersive spectroscopy. Protein binding capacities of 3 mg lysozyme/mL were measured. While further studies are required to evaluate binding kinetics and Arg-selectivity, achieving higher protein binding capacity is needed before investment in such studies.

Cu(2+), Zn(2+), and Ni(2+) Complexes of C2-Symmetric Pseudopeptides with an Aromatic Central Spacer

Two new tetradentate C2-symmetric pseudopeptidic ligands derived from Val and Phe containing two amino and two amido groups and a central o-substituted aromatic spacer have been prepared. Their complexes with Cu(2+), Zn(2+), and Ni(2+) have been studied by potentiometry, UV-vis spectrophotometry, FT-IR, and ESI-MS. The presence of the aromatic spacer provides Cu(2+) complexes with stability constants several orders of magnitude higher than those observed for related ligands containing aliphatic central spacers. Besides, the formation of [MH-2L] complex species is favored. Crystal structures for the corresponding Cu(2+) and Ni(2+) have been obtained, revealing the metal atom in an essentially square-planar geometry, although, in several instances, the oxygen atom of an amide carbonyl of a second complex species can act as a fifth coordination site. In the case of Zn(2+), the only crystal structure obtained displays a square-pyramidal arrangement of the metal center. Finally, preliminary experiments show the catalytic activity of some of these complexes, in particular, Zn(2+) complexes, for epoxide ring-opening with using aniline as the nucleophile in a ligand accelerated process.

An evaluation of the CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 inhibition potential of metoprolol metabolites and their contribution to drug-drug and drug-herb interaction by LC-ESI/MS/MS

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the contribution of metabolites to drug-drug interaction and drug-herb interaction using the inhibition of CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 by metoprolol (MET) and its metabolites. The peak concentrations of unbound plasma concentration of MET, α-hydroxy metoprolol (HM), O-desmethyl metoprolol (ODM) and N-desisopropyl metoprolol (DIM) were 90.37 ± 2.69, 33.32 ± 1.92, 16.93 ± 1.70 and 7.96 ± 0.94 ng/mL, respectively. The metabolites identified, HM and ODM, had a ratio of metabolic area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) to parent AUC of ≥0.25 when either total or unbound concentration of metabolite was considered. In vitro CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 inhibition by MET, HM and ODM study revealed that MET, HM and ODM were not inhibitors of CYP3A4-catalyzed midazolam metabolism and CYP2D6-catalyzed dextromethorphan metabolism. However, DIM only met the criteria of >10% of the total drug related material and <25% of the parent using unbound concentrations. If CYP inhibition testing is solely based on metabolite exposure, DIM metabolite would probably not be considered. However, the present study has demonstrated that DIM contributes significantly to in vitro drug-drug interaction. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

One-Pot Synthesis of N-Substituted β-Amino Alcohols from Aldehydes and Isocyanides

A practical two-stage one-pot synthesis of N-substituted β-amino alcohols using aldehydes and isocyanides as starting materials has been developed. This method features mild reaction conditions, broad scope, and general tolerance of functional groups. Based on a less common central carbon-carbon bond disconnection, this protocol complements traditional approaches that involve amines and various carbon electrophiles (epoxides, α-halo ketones, β-halohydrins). Medicinally relevant products can be prepared in a concise and efficient way from simple building blocks, as demonstrated in the synthesis of the antiasthma drug salbutamol. Upgrading the synthesis to an enantioselective variant is also feasible.

Friedländer annulation: scope and limitations of metal salt Lewis acid catalysts in selectivity control for the synthesis of functionalised quinolines

In(OTf)₃ is the most effective catalyst among metal halides, tetrafluoroborates, perchlorates, and triflates for Friedländer quinoline synthesis in 75–92% yields.

Convenient synthesis of 2,3-disubstituted quinazolin-4(3H)-ones and 2-styryl-3-substituted quinazolin-4(3H)-ones: applications towards the synthesis of drugs

Simple, convenient, and green synthetic protocols have been developed for the one pot synthesis of 2,3-disubstituted quinazolin-4(3H)-ones and 2-styryl-3-substituted quinazolin-4(3H)-ones under catalyst and solvent free conditions.

Regio- and stereoselective synthesis of new diaminocyclopentanols

The optimal conditions for regio- and stereoselective epoxide ring opening of N,N-disubstituted 1,2-epoxy-3-aminocyclopentanes by different nucleophilic reagents have been developed. The substituents on the nitrogen atom in the epoxide precursor and the orientation of the oxirane ring are crucial for the reaction outcome. Thus, treatment of (1RS,2SR,3SR)-1,2-epoxy-3-(N,N-dibenzylamino)cyclopentane (3b) with amines gave a mixture of C1 and C2 regioadducts, while the use of (1RS,2SR,3SR)-1,2-epoxy-3-(N-benzyl-N-methylamino)cyclopentane (3a) led ultimately to C1 adducts. Base-catalyzed aminolysis of epoxides 6a,b afforded mainly C1 adducts 13a,b arising from trans-diaxal opening of the epoxide ring. Using a Lewis acid catalyst, epoxides 6a,b were transformed into diaminocyclopentanols 14a,b via an alternative pathway involving the formation of aziridinium intermediate 17.