Total Synthesis of Ezetimibe, a Cholesterol Absorption Inhibitor

The Applicability of Chromatographic Retention Modeling on Chiral Stationary Phases in Reverse-Phase Mode: A Case Study for Ezetimibe and Its Impurities

Mechanistic modeling is useful for predicting and modulating selectivity even in early chromatographic method development. This approach is also in accordance with current analytical quality using design principles and is highly welcomed by the authorities. The aim of this study was to investigate the separation behavior of two different types of chiral stationary phases (CSPs) for the separation of ezetimibe and its related substances using the mechanistic retention modeling approach offered by the Drylab software (version 4.5) package. Based on the obtained results, both CSPs presented with chemoselectivity towards the impurities of ezetimibe. The cyclodextrin-based CSP displayed a higher separation capacity and was able to separate seven related substances from the active pharmaceutical ingredient, while the cellulose-based column enabled the baseline resolution of six impurities from ezetimibe. Generally, the accuracy of predicted retention times was lower for the polysaccharide CSP, which could indicate the presence of additional secondary interactions between the analytes and the CSP. It was also demonstrated that the combination of mechanistic modeling and an experimental design approach can be applied to method development on CSPs in reverse-phase mode. The applicability of the methods was tested on spiked artificial placebo samples, while intraday and long-term (2 years) method repeatability was also challenged through comparing the obtained retention times and resolution values. The results indicated the excellent robustness of the selected setpoints. Overall, our findings indicate that the chiral columns could offer orthogonal selectivity to traditional reverse-phase columns for the separation of structurally similar compounds.

Visible Light Induced Three-Component 1,2-Dicarbofunctionalization of Alkenes and Alkynes

Harnessing visible-light in organic synthesis is one of the most effective methods that aligns with green and sustainable chemistry principles and hence skyrocketed in the last two decades. Similarly, three-component 1,2-dicarbofunctionalization of alkenes and alkynes has recently been a great choice to construct complex molecular systems in an easy and rapid manner. Therefore, light-induced reactions can be an excellent alternative to carry out 1,2-dicarbofunctionalization reactions, and very recently, organic chemists across the globe have fascinated us with their interesting articles. In this present review, we have summarized the recent advancements in the area of visible light induced three-component 1,2-dicarbofunctionalization of alkenes and alkynes till March 2023. We have categorized the discussion based on the catalysts used to carry out the transformations for better understanding and different important aspects of these transformations have also been covered.

Analytical quality by design-compliant retention modeling for exploring column interchangeabilities in separating ezetimibe and its related substances

There are several potential advantages of using experimental design-based retention modeling for chromatographic method development. Most importantly, through the model-delivered systematic understanding (Design Spaces), users can benefit from increased method consistency, flexibility and robustness that can efficiently be achieved at lesser amount of development time. As a result, modeling tools have always been great supplementary assets and welcomed by both the pharmaceutical industry and the regulatory authorities. Most recently published chapters of ICH however - Q2(R2) and Q14 (both currently drafts) - evidence a further paradigm shift, specifying the elements of model-based development strategies in the so-called "enhanced approach". The main aim of this study was to investigate the impact of stationary phase chemistries on chromatographic method performance in the application example of ezetimibe and its related substances. A commercial modeling software package (DryLab®) was used to outline three-dimensional experimental design frameworks and acquire model Design Spaces (DSs) of 9 tested columns. This was done by performing 12 input calibration experiments per column, systematically changing critical method parameters (CMPs) as variables such as the gradient time (tG), temperature (T) and the ternary composition (tC) of the mobile phase. The constructed models allowed studying retention behaviors of selected analytes within each separation systems. In the first part of our work, we performed single optimizations for all nine stationary phases with substantially different surface modifications based on their highest achievable critical resolution values. For these optimum points in silico robustness testing was performed, clearly showing a change of CMPs, depending on the column, and specified optimum setpoint. In the second part of our work, we simultaneously compared the three-dimensional virtual separation models to identify all method parameter combinations that could provide at least baseline separation (R_{s, crit.}>1.50). These overlapping areas between the models described a common method operational design region (MODR) where columns were considered completely interchangeable - in terms of their baseline resolving capability - regardless of their exact physicochemical properties. A final optimized, column-independent working point within the common MODR was selected for verification. Indeed, experimental chromatograms showed excellent agreement with the model; all columns in the common condition were able to yield critical resolution values higher than 2.0, only their retentivity (elution window of peaks) was found different in some cases. Our results underline that a profound understanding of the separation process is of utmost importance andthat in some cases, adequate selectivity is achievable on various stationary phases.

Study on Hydration and Dehydration of Ezetimibe by Terahertz Spectroscopy with Humidity-Controlled Measurements and Theoretical Analysis

Understanding the solid-state transitions of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) is essential for quality control since differences in their forms affect the bioavailability of APIs. Terahertz (THz) frequency-domain spectroscopy is suitable for such an application since it can sensitively probe the lattice phonon modes originating in the crystal structures. THz absorption spectra were obtained for ezetimibe (EZT) and ezetimibe monohydrate (EZT-MH), which have similar crystalline structures and belong to the same space group. The observed absorption spectrum of EZT matched well with the solid-state density functional theory (ss-DFT)-simulated spectrum for the structures at 0 K and room temperature (modeled using constrained unit cell volumes). However for EZT-MH, the ss-DFT spectrum of the room-temperature structure showed better correlation with the experimental THz spectrum than that of the simulated spectrum of the 0 K structures, suggesting that the EZT-MH crystal has greater anharmonic character. Gibbs free-energy curves were calculated, and EZT-MH was found to be more stable than pure EZT and water in a broad temperature range. The hydrate stability may be influenced by the existence of more hydrogen bonds in EZT-MH. The hydration and dehydration of EZT in a pure API tablet and formulation tablets were monitored using a THz spectrometer with a humidity-controlled sample chamber. The effect of the excipient in the formulation tablet on hydration was successfully confirmed by showing that the solid-state transition of the API with excipients is significantly slower than that without it. Under a relative humidity of 60%, hydration of EZT in a pure EZT tablet occurred in 200 min, while the hydration of EZT in a formulation tablet was 50 times slower.

Shortening Synthetic Routes to Small Molecule Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients Employing Biocatalytic Methods

Biocatalysis, using enzymes for organic synthesis, has emerged as powerful tool for the synthesis of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). The first industrial biocatalytic processes launched in the first half of the last century exploited whole-cell microorganisms where the specific enzyme at work was not known. In the meantime, novel molecular biology methods, such as efficient gene sequencing and synthesis, triggered breakthroughs in directed evolution for the rapid development of process-stable enzymes with broad substrate scope and good selectivities tailored for specific substrates. To date, enzymes are employed to enable shorter, more efficient, and more sustainable alternative routes toward (established) small molecule APIs, and are additionally used to perform standard reactions in API synthesis more efficiently. Herein, large-scale synthetic routes containing biocatalytic key steps toward >130 APIs of approved drugs and drug candidates are compared with the corresponding chemical protocols (if available) regarding the steps, reaction conditions, and scale. The review is structured according to the functional group formed in the reaction.

Tailor-made amino acids in the design of small-molecule blockbuster drugs

The role of amino acids (AAs) in modern health industry is well-appreciated. Residues of individual AAs, or their chemical modifications, such as diamines and amino alcohols, are frequently found in the structures of modern pharmaceuticals. The goal of this review article, is to emphasize that, currently, tailor-made AAs serve as key structural features in many most successful pharmaceuticals, so-called blockbuster drugs. In the present article, we profile 14 small-molecule drugs, underscoring the breadth of structural variety of AAs applications in numerous therapeutic areas. For each compound, we provide spectrum of biological activity, medicinal chemistry discovery, and synthetic approaches.

α-C-H Bond Functionalization of Unprotected Alicyclic Amines: Lewis-Acid-Promoted Addition of Enolates to Transient Imines

Enolizable cyclic imines, obtained in situ from their corresponding lithium amides by oxidation with simple ketone oxidants, are readily alkylated with a range of enolates to provide mono- and polycyclic β-aminoketones in a single operation, including the natural product (±)-myrtine. Nitrile anions also serve as competent nucleophiles in these transformations, which are promoted by BF3 etherate. β-Aminoesters derived from ester enolates can be converted to the corresponding β-lactams.

Prescribed drugs containing nitrogen heterocycles: an overview

Heteroatoms as well as heterocyclic scaffolds are frequently present as the common cores in a plethora of active pharmaceuticals natural products. Statistically, more than 85% of all biologically active compounds are heterocycles or comprise a heterocycle and most frequently, nitrogen heterocycles as a backbone in their complex structures. These facts disclose and emphasize the vital role of heterocycles in modern drug design and drug discovery. In this review, we try to present a comprehensive overview of top prescribed drugs containing nitrogen heterocycles, describing their pharmacological properties, medical applications and their selected synthetic pathways. It is worth mentioning that the reported examples are actually limited to current top selling drugs, being or containing N-heterocycles and their synthetic information has been extracted from both scientific journals and the wider patent literature.

Efficient production of an ezetimibe intermediate using carbonyl reductase coupled with glucose dehydrogenase

Ezetimibe is a top-selling hypolipidemic drug for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Biosynthesis of (4S)-3-[(5S)-5-(4-fluorophenyl)-5-hydroxypentanoyl]-4-phenyl-1,3-oxazolidin-2-one ((S)-ET-5) using carbonyl reductase has shown advantages including high catalytic efficiency, excellent stereoselectivity, mild reaction conditions, and environmental friendness, and was considered as the key step for ezetimibe production. The regeneration efficiency of the cofactor, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (phosphate) (NAD(P)H) is one of the main restricted factor. Recombinant Escherichia coli strain (smCR125) coexpressing carbonyl reductase (CR125) and glucose dehydrogenase were successfully constructed and applied for the production of (S)-ET-5 for the first time. Without extra addition of the coenzyme NADPH, the yield of 99.8% and the enantiomeric excess (e.e.) of 99.9% were achieved under ET-4 concentration of 200 g/L. Using a substrate fed-batch strategy, under the optimal conditions, the substrate ET-4 concentration was increased to 250 g/L with the yield of 98.9% and the e.e. of 99.9% after 12 hr reaction. The space-time yield of 494.5 g L^-1 d^-1 and the space-time yield per gram biocatalyst of 24.7 g L^-1 d^-1 g^-1 DCW were achieved, which were higher than ever reported for the biosynthesis of the ezetimibe intermediate.

Iridium-Catalyzed Asymmetric Hydrogenation of γ- and δ-Ketoacids for Enantioselective Synthesis of γ- and δ-Lactones

A highly efficient asymmetric hydrogenation of γ- and δ-ketoacids was developed by using a chiral spiro iridium catalyst (S)-1a, affording the optically active γ- and δ-hydroxy acids/lactones in high yields with excellent enantioselectivities (up to >99% ee) and turnover numbers (TON up to 100000). This protocol provides an efficient and practical method for enantioselective synthesis of Ezetimibe.

Additive-free regio- and diastereoselective construction of fully-substituted isoxazolidines employing diazo compounds

An efficient additive-free three-component access to densely functionalized isoxazolidines using diazo compounds, nitrosoarene, and allenic esters has been uncovered.

Highly enantioselective sequential vinylogous aldol reaction/transesterification of methyl-substituted olefinic butyrolactones with isatins for the construction of chiral spirocyclic oxindole-dihydropyranones

A highly stereoselective sequential vinylogous aldol reaction/transesterification of methyl-substituted olefinic butyrolactones and isatins was developed with 10 mol% Takemoto's amine–thiourea catalyst.

Chiral Cyclohexyl-Fused Spirobiindanes: Practical Synthesis, Ligand Development, and Asymmetric Catalysis

1,1'-Spirobiindane has been one type of privileged skeleton for chiral ligand design, and 1,1'-spirobiindane-based chiral ligands have demonstrated outstanding performance in various asymmetric catalysis. However, the access to enantiopure spirobiindane is quite tedious, which obstructs its practical application. In the present article, a facile enantioselective synthesis of cyclohexyl-fused chiral spirobiindanes has been accomplished, in high yields and excellent stereoselectivities (up to >99% ee), via a sequence of Ir-catalyzed asymmetric hydrogenation of α,α'-bis(arylidene)ketones and TiCl₄ promoted asymmetric spiroannulation of the hydrogenated chiral ketones. The protocol can be performed in one pot and is readily scalable, and has been utilized in a 25 g scale asymmetric synthesis of cyclohexyl-fused spirobiindanediol (1 S,2 S,2' S)-5, in >99% ee and 67% overall yield for four steps without chromatographic purification. Facile derivations of (1 S,2 S,2' S)-5 provided straightforward access to chiral monodentate phosphoramidites 6a-c and a tridentate phosphorus-amidopyridine 11, which were evaluated as chiral ligands in several benchmark enantioselective reactions (hydrogenation, hydroacylation, and [2 + 2] reaction) catalyzed by transition metal (Rh, Au, or Ir). Preliminary results from comparative studies showcased the excellent catalytic performances of these ligands, with a competency essentially equal to the corresponding well-established privileged ligands bearing a regular spirobiindane backbone. X-ray crystallography revealed a close resemblance between the structures of the precatalysts 20 and 21 and their analogues, which ultimately help to rationalize the almost identical stereochemical outcomes of reactions catalyzed by metal complexes of spirobiindane-derived ligands with or without a fused cyclohexyl ring on the backbone. This work is expected to stimulate further applications of this type of readily accessible skeletons in development of chiral ligands and functional molecules.

Formal synthesis of Thienamycin

A formal synthesis of Thienamycin from ethyl (E)-crotonate and a cyclic five-membered nitrone derived from 2-deoxy-d-ribose is described. The synthesis involves 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition, cleavage of the N-O bond in the adduct, and intramolecular N-acylation to afford a bicyclic carbapenam skeleton. Subsequent transformations of the five-membered ring substituents provide the title compound.

1,3-Dipolar cycloaddition of a cyclic nitrone derived from 2-deoxy-D-ribose to α,β-unsaturated lactones: An entry to carbapenem antibiotics

1,3-Dipolar cycloadditions of 2-deoxy-D-ribose-derived L-threo five-membered cyclic nitrone to α,β-unsaturated γ- and δ-lactones were investigated. Cycloadducts obtained from δ-lactones, after NO bond cleavage, opening of the lactone ring, and protection of hydroxyl groups were subjected to β-lactam ring formation by using Mukaiyama's salt. Cycloadducts from γ-lactones subjected to the same reaction sequence undergo β-elimination of a water molecule to provide pyrrolidine-substituted unsaturated γ-lactones.

Rh-Catalyzed reductive Mannich-type reaction and its application towards the synthesis of (±)-ezetimibe

An effective synthesis for syn-β-lactams was achieved using a Rh-catalyzed reductive Mannich-type reaction. A rhodium–hydride complex (Rh–H) derived from diethylzinc (Et₂Zn) and a Rh catalyst was used for the 1,4-reduction of an α,β-unsaturated ester to give a Reformatsky-type reagent, which in turn, reacted with an imine to give the syn-β-lactam. Additionally, the reaction was applied to the synthesis of (±)-ezetimibe, a potent β-lactamic cholesterol absorption inhibitor.

Identification, synthesis and characterization of process related desfluoro impurity of ezetimibe and HPLC method validations

Ezetimibe, which selectively inhibits cholesterol absorption across the intestinal wall and is used as an antihyperlipidemic agent, is synthesized for commercial use as a drug substance in highly pure form. During the synthetic process development studies of ezetimibe, an impurity was detected in the final product at levels ranging from 0.05% to 0.15% in reverse phase gradient high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method and its molecular weight was determined by LC-MS analysis. The impurity was identified as (3R,4S)-3-((S)-3-(4-fluorophenyl)-3-hydroxypropyl)-4-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-1-phenylazetidin-2-one which is called desfluoro ezetimibe (lactam-related) impurity, synthesized and characterized, the mechanism of its formation was discussed in detail. After all standardization procedures, it was used as a reference standard during validation of HPLC method and routine analyses. In addition, content of Eze-1 desfluoro impurity in Eze-1 intermediates was specified as 0.10% to keep the formation of desfluoro ezetimibe impurity under control and the related substances HPLC method was validated accordingly.

Synthesis of a fluorinated Ezetimibe analogue using radical allylation of α-bromo-α-fluoro-β-lactam

A facile and efficient synthesis of a fluorinated Ezetimibe analogue was achieved by radical allylation, Wacker oxidation, and nucleophilic arylation of α-bromo-α-fluoro-β-lactam.