Hydrodynamic Properties of Magnetic Nanoparticles with Tunable Shape Anisotropy: Prediction and Experimental Verification

Dynamics of anisotropic colloidal systems: What to choose, DLS, DDM or XPCS?

Investigation of the dynamics of colloids in bulk can be hindered by issues such as multiple scattering and sample opacity. These challenges are exacerbated when dealing with inorganic materials. In this study, we employed a model system of Akaganeite colloidal rods to assess three leading dynamics measurement techniques: 3D-(depolarized) dynamic light scattering (3D-(D)DLS), polarized-differential dynamic microscopy (P-DDM), and x-ray photon correlation spectroscopy (XPCS). Our analysis revealed that the translational and rotational diffusion coefficients captured by these methods show a remarkable alignment. Additionally, by examining the q-ranges and maximum volume fractions for each approach, we offer insights into the best technique for investigating the dynamics of anisotropic systems at the colloidal scale.

Prolate spheroidal polystyrene nanoparticles: matrix assisted synthesis, interface properties, and scattering analysis

Shape-anisotropic colloids are increasingly attracting attention for the fabrication of nano- and mesostructured materials. Polymer-based prolate spheroids are typically accessible through a two-step fabrication procedure comprising the synthesis of monodisperse particles of initially spherical shape and their stretching into elongated, ellipsoidal-like objects. The particle stretching is conducted within a matrix polymer, most commonly polyvinylalcohol, which allows heating beyond the glass transition temperature of the polymer particles, e.g. polystyrene. Here, we investigate various aspects of the synthesis and their consequences for the resulting colloids. Loading the stretching matrix with a high amount of polymer particles results in small particle clusters, which are separated during the mechanical stretching step. At the same time, the matrix polymer physisorbs at the particle surface which can be removed via a rigorous work-up procedure. Overall, this process allows for a precise adjustment of the aspect ratio of the prolate spheroids with a small size distribution and retained electrostatic stabilization. We analyse these particles with a range of microscopic and scattering techniques, including depolarized dynamic light scattering that gives access to the rotational diffusion coefficients.

Extending depolarized DLS measurements to turbid samples

The application of dynamic light scattering to soft matter systems has strongly profited from advanced approaches such as the so-called modulated 3D cross correlation technique (Mod3D-DLS) that suppress contributions from multiple scattering, and can therefore be used for the characterization of turbid samples. Here we now extend the possibilities of this technique to allow for depolarized light scattering (Mod3D-DDLS) and thus obtain information on both translational and rotational diffusion, which is important for the characterization of anisotropic particles. We describe the required optical design and test the performance of the approach for increasingly turbid samples using well defined anisotropic colloidal models systems. Our measurements demonstrate that 3D-DDLS experiments can be performed successfully for samples with a reduced transmission due to multiple scattering as low as 1%. We compare the results from this approach with those obtained by standard DDLS experiments, and point out the importance of using an appropriate optical design when performing depolarized dynamic light scattering experiments with turbid systems.

Shape Matters in Magnetic-Field-Assisted Assembly of Prolate Colloids

An anisotropic colloidal shape in combination with an externally tunable interaction potential results in a plethora of self-assembled structures with potential applications toward the fabrication of smart materials. Here we present our investigation on the influence of an external magnetic field on the self-assembly of hematite-silica core-shell prolate colloids for two aspect ratios ρ = 2.9 and 3.69. Our study shows a rather counterintuitive but interesting phenomenon, where prolate colloids self-assemble into oblate liquid crystalline (LC) phases. With increasing concentration, particles with smaller ρ reveal a sequence of LC phases involving para-nematic, nematic, smectic, and oriented glass phases. The occurrence of a smectic phase for colloidal ellipsoids has been neither predicted nor reported before. Quantitative shape analysis of the particles together with extensive computer simulations indicate that in addition to ρ, a subtle deviation from the ideal ellipsoidal shape dictates the formation of this unusual sequence of field-induced structures. Particles with ρ = 2.9 exhibit a hybrid shape containing features from both spherocylinders and ellipsoids, which make their self-assembly behavior richer than that observed for either of the "pure" shapes. The shape of the particles with higher ρ matches closely with the ideal ellipsoids, as a result their phase behavior follows the one expected for a "pure" ellipsoidal shape. Using anisotropic building blocks and external fields, our study demonstrates the ramifications of the subtle changes in the particle shape on the field-directed self-assembled structures with externally tunable properties.

Sub-millisecond Translational and Orientational Dynamics of a Freely Moving Single Nanoprobe

This paper presents a new experiment with which we are able to measure the 3D translational motion of a single particle at 10 μs time resolution and with ∼10 nm spatial resolution while at the same time determining the 3D orientation of the same single particle with 250 μs time resolution. These high time resolutions are ∼40 times greater than previous simultaneous measurements of 3D position and 3D orientation. Detailed numerical simulations and experiments are used to demonstrate that the technique can measure 3D orientation at the shot-noise limit. The microscope is also able to simultaneously measure the length or width (with the other assumed) of the plasmonic nanorods used here in situ and nondestructively, which should yield a greater understanding of the underlying dynamics. This technique should be applicable to a broad range of problems where environments which change in space and time may perturb physical and chemical dynamics.

In situ magnetorheological SANS setup at Institut Laue-Langevin

A magnetorheological sample environment is presented that allows for in situ magnetic field and shear flow during small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) measurements and is now available at the Institut Laue-Langevin (ILL). The setup allows performing simultaneous magnetorheological measurements together with the investigation of structural and magnetic changes on the nanometer length scale underlying the rheological response of ferrofluids. We describe the setup consisting of a commercial rheometer and a custom-made set of Helmholtz coils and show exemplarily data on the field and shear flow alignment of a dispersion of hematite nanospindles in water.

Anisotropic dynamics and kinetic arrest of dense colloidal ellipsoids in the presence of an external field studied by differential dynamic microscopy

Anisotropic dynamics on the colloidal length scale is ubiquitous in nature. Of particular interest is the dynamics of systems approaching a kinetically arrested state. The failure of classical techniques for investigating the dynamics of highly turbid suspensions has contributed toward the limited experimental information available up until now. Exploiting the recent developments in the technique of differential dynamic microscopy (DDM), we report the first experimental study of the anisotropic collective dynamics of colloidal ellipsoids with a magnetic hematite core over a wide concentration range approaching kinetic arrest. In addition, we have investigated the effect of an external magnetic field on the resulting anisotropic collective diffusion. We combine DDM with small-angle x-ray scattering and rheological measurements to locate the glass transition and to relate the collective short- and long-time diffusion coefficients to the structural correlations and the evolution of the zero shear viscosity as the system approaches an arrested state.

Static structure and dynamical behavior of colloidal liquid crystals consisting of hydroxyapatite-based nanorod hybrids

Biominerals such as bones and teeth have elaborate nanostructures composed of aligned anisotropic hydroxyapatite (HAp) nanocrystals, which results in excellent mechanical properties. Construction of such ordered structures of HAp nanocrystals in synthetic materials is challenging. Recently, we reported that HAp-nanorod-based colloidal liquid crystals could be obtained. In the present study, the static structure and dynamics of liquid-crystalline (LC) colloidal dispersions of HAp nanorods are investigated by using small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and X-ray photon correlation spectroscopy (XPCS). The SAXS results reveal that the interparticle distance decreases with increasing HAp concentration, φHAp, and the decrease of the interparticle distance for the short-axis direction is significantly smaller in the LC phase than the interparticle distance in the isotropic phase. In the dynamical studies of the LC phase using XPCS, we observe the diffusive motion of the HAp colloids, with the diffusion coefficient being dependent on the wave number. The diffusive motion slows down with increasing φHAp. We observe anisotropic dynamics after long-term storage (160 days after sealing), whereas only isotropic dynamics are observed in the initial XPCS measurements after short-term storage (14 days after sealing). Moreover, we have found that the dynamics slows down with increasing storage time.

Particokinetics and in vitro dose of high aspect ratio nanoparticles

Computational particokinetics models become essential in the design and interpretation of in vitro nanoparticle toxicology assays involving submerged adherent cell cultures. Yet, none of the current models offers the possibility of addressing the delivered dose of high-aspect ratio nanoparticles, including nanorods, nanotubes, and nanofibers. Here we present a straightforward method that lends this ability to any of the models used currently.

Determination of the size distribution of non-spherical nanoparticles by electric birefringence-based methods

The in situ determination of the size distribution of dispersed non-spherical nanoparticles is an essential characterization tool for the investigation and use of colloidal suspensions. In this work, we test a size characterization method based on the measurement of the transient behaviour of the birefringence induced in the dispersions by pulsed electric fields. The specific shape of such relaxations depends on the distribution of the rotational diffusion coefficient of the suspended particles. We analyse the measured transient birefringence with three approaches: the stretched-exponential, Watson-Jennings, and multi-exponential methods. These are applied to six different types of rod-like and planar particles: PTFE rods, goethite needles, single- and double-walled carbon nanotubes, sodium montmorillonite particles and gibbsite platelets. The results are compared to electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering measurements. The methods here considered provide good or excellent results in all cases, proving that the analysis of the transient birefringence is a powerful tool to obtain complete size distributions of non-spherical particles in suspension.

Nanoscale Rheology and Anisotropic Diffusion Using Single Gold Nanorod Probes

The complex rotational and translational Brownian motion of anisotropic particles depends on their shape and the viscoelasticity of their surroundings. Because of their strong optical scattering and chemical versatility, gold nanorods would seem to provide the ultimate probes of rheology at the nanoscale, but the suitably accurate orientational tracking required to compute rheology has not been demonstrated. Here we image single gold nanorods with a laser-illuminated dark-field microscope and use optical polarization to determine their three-dimensional orientation to better than one degree. We convert the rotational diffusion of single nanorods in viscoelastic polyethylene glycol solutions to rheology and obtain excellent agreement with bulk measurements. Extensions of earlier models of anisotropic translational diffusion to three dimensions and viscoelastic fluids give excellent agreement with the observed motion of single nanorods. We find that nanorod tracking provides a uniquely capable approach to microrheology and provides a powerful tool for probing nanoscale dynamics and structure in a range of soft materials.

Non-equilibrium concentration fluctuations in superparamagnetic nanocolloids

We investigate non-equilibrium concentration fluctuations during the free diffusion of a colloidal suspension against pure water. We investigate Fe₂O₃ superparamagnetic nanocolloids with sizes between 1 and 10 nm by means of a shadowgraph apparatus to determine the mixture mass diffusion coefficient and kinematic viscosity. The experiments were performed in three distinct conditions: Experiment 1 is without any magnetic field; Experiment 2 with a vertical magnetic field; Experiment 3 after turning off the magnetic field. We found no correlation between the kinematic viscosity coefficient and the external magnetic field. Conversely, we found that the mass diffusion coefficient decreases in the presence of the external magnetic field and slowly rebounds after the magnetic field was turned off.

Anisotropic magnetic particles in a magnetic field

We characterize the structural properties of magnetic ellipsoidal hematite colloids with an aspect ratio ρ ≈ 2.3 using a combination of small-angle X-ray scattering and computer simulations. The evolution of the phase diagram with packing fraction ϕ and the strength of an applied magnetic field B is described, and the coupling between orientational order of magnetic ellipsoids and the bulk magnetic behavior of their suspension addressed. We establish quantitative structural criteria for the different phase and arrest transitions and map distinct isotropic, polarized non-nematic, and nematic phases over an extended range in the ϕ-B coordinates. We show that upon a rotational arrest of the ellipsoids around ϕ = 0.59, the bulk magnetic behavior of their suspension switches from superparamagnetic to ordered weakly ferromagnetic. If densely packed and arrested, these magnetic particles thus provide persisting remanent magnetization of the suspension. By exploring structural and magnetic properties together, we extend the often used colloid-atom analogy to the case of magnetic spins.

In relation to the following article "DLS and zeta potential - What they are and what they are not?" Journal of Controlled Release, 2016, 235, 337-351

This Letter to the Editor is written to provide with a corrigendum along with some short technical notes as additional supplementary materials to the recently published review article in JCR, "DLS and zeta potential - What they are and what they are not?".

Shape-tunable core-shell microparticles

Colloidal polymer particles are an important class of materials finding use in both everyday and basic research applications. Tailoring their composition, shape, and functionality is of key importance. In this article, we describe a new class of shape-tunable core-shell microparticles. They are composed of a cross-linked polystyrene (PS) core and a poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) shell of varying thickness. In the first step, we prepared highly cross-linked PS cores, which are subsequently transferred into a nonpolar dispersant. They serve as the seed dispersion for a nonaqueous dispersion polymerization to generate the PMMA shell. The shape of the particles can subsequently be manipulated. After the shell growth stage, the spherical PS/PMMA core-shell colloids exhibit an uneven and wrinkled surface. An additional tempering procedure allows for smoothing the surface of the core-shell colloids. This results in polymer core-shell particles with a perfectly spherical shape. In addition to this thermal smoothing of the PMMA shell, we generated a selection of shape-anisotropic core-shell particles using a thermomechanical stretching procedure. Because of the unique constitution, we can selectively interrogate molecular vibrations in the PS core or the PMMA shell of the colloids using nonlinear optical microscopy techniques. This is of great interest because no photobleaching occurs, such that the particles can be tracked in real space over long times.

Advanced multiresponsive comploids: from design to possible applications

We extend the commonly used synthesis strategies for responsive microgels to the design of novel multiresponsive and multifunctional nanoparticles that combine inorganic magnetic, metallic/catalytic and thermoresponsive organic moieties. Magnetic responsiveness is implemented through the integration of silica-coated maghemite nanoparticles into fluorescently labeled crosslinked poly(N-isopropylmethacrylamide) microgels. These particles are then employed as templates for the in situ reduction of catalytically active gold nanoparticles. In order to tune the reactivity of the catalyst through a thermally controlled barrier, an additional layer of crosslinked poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) is added in the final step. We subsequently demonstrate that these particles can be employed as smart catalysts. We show that the thermoresponsive nature of the outer particle shell not only provides control over the catalytic activity, but when combined with a magnetic core allows for very efficient removal of the catalytic system through temperature-controlled reversible coagulation and subsequent magnetophoresis in an applied magnetic field gradient. We finally discuss the use of this design principle for the synthesis of complex hybrid particles for various applications that would all profit from their multiresponsive and multifunctional nature.

Strong effect of weak charging in suspensions of anisotropic colloids

Suspensions of hard colloidal particles frequently serve as model systems in studies on fundamental aspects of phase transitions. But often colloidal particles that are considered as "hard" are in fact weakly charged. If the colloids are spherical, weak charging has only a weak effect on the structural properties of the suspension, which can be easily corrected for. However, this does not hold for anisotropic particles. We introduce a model for the interaction potential between charged ellipsoids of revolution (spheroids) based on the Derjaguin approximation of Debye-Hückel theory and present a computer simulation study on aspects of the system's structural properties and phase behaviour. In line with previous experimental observations, we find that even a weak surface charge has a strong impact on the correlation functions. A likewise strong impact is seen on the phase behaviour, in particular, we find stable cubatic order in suspensions of oblate ellipsoids.

Rod hydrodynamics and length distributions of single-wall carbon nanotubes using analytical ultracentrifugation

Because of their repetitive chemical structure, extreme rigidity, and the separability of populations with varying aspect ratio, SWCNTs are excellent candidates for use as model rodlike colloids. In this contribution, the sedimentation velocities of length and density sorted single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) are compared to predictions from rod hydrodynamic theories of increasing complexity over a range of aspect ratios from <50 to >400. Independently measuring all contributions to the sedimentation velocity besides the shape factor, excellent agreement is found between the experimental findings and theoretical predictions for numerically calculated hydrodynamic radius values and for multiterm analytical expansion approximations; values for the hydrodynamic radii in these cases are additionally found to be consistent with the apparent hydrated particle radius determined independently by buoyancy measurements. Lastly, we utilize this equivalency to calculate the apparent distribution of nanotube lengths in each population from their sedimentation coefficient distribution without adjustable parameters, achieving excellent agreement with distributions from atomic force microscopy. The method developed herein provides an alternative for the ensemble measurement of SWCNT length distributions and others rodlike particles.

Shape-tailored polymer colloids on the road to become structural motifs for hierarchically organized materials

Anisometric polymer colloids are likely to behave differently when compared with centrosymmetric particles. Their study may not only shine new light on the organization of matter; they may also serve as building units with specific symmetries and complexity to build new materials from them. Polymer colloids of well-defined complex geometries can be obtained by packing a limited number of spherical polymer particles into clusters with defined configurations. Such supracolloidal architectures can be fabricated at larger scales using narrowly dispersed emulsion droplets as templates. Assemblies built from at least two different types of particles as elementary building units open perspectives in selective targeting of colloids with specific properties, aiming for mesoscale building blocks with tailor-made morphologies and multifunctionality. Polymer colloids with defined geometries are also ideal to study shape-dependent properties such as the diffusion of complex particles.

Direction dependent diffusion of aligned magnetic rods by means of x-ray photon correlation spectroscopy

Rodlike hematite particles in suspension align perpendicular to an external magnetic field due to a negative anisotropy of their magnetic susceptibility Δχ. The diffusion tensor consists of two principal constants D(∥) and D(⊥) for the diffusion parallel and perpendicular to the long particle axis. X-ray photon correlation spectroscopy is capable of probing the diffusive motion in optically opaque suspensions of rodlike hematite particles parallel to the direction of the scattering vector Q. Choosing Q parallel or perpendicular to the direction of an external magnetic field H the direction dependent intermediate scattering function is measured by means of x-ray photon correlation spectroscopy. From the intermediate scattering function in both directions the principal diffusion constants D(∥) and D(⊥) are determined. The ratio D(∥)/D(⊥) increases with increasing aspect ratio of the particles and can be described via a rescaled theoretical approach for prolate ellipsoids of revolution.

Emerging techniques for submicrometer particle sizing applied to Stöber silica

The accurate characterization of submicrometer and nanometer sized particles presents a major challenge in the diverse applications envisaged for them including cosmetics, biosensors, renewable energy, and electronics. Size is one of the principal parameters for classifying particles and understanding their behavior, with other particle characteristics usually only quantifiable when size is accounted for. We present a comparative study of emerging and established techniques to size submicrometer particles, evaluating their sizing precision and relative resolution, and demonstrating the variety of physical principles upon which they are based, with the aim of developing a framework in which they can be compared. We used in-house synthesized Stöber silica particles between 100 and 400 nm in diameter as reference materials for this study. The emerging techniques of scanning ion occlusion sensing (SIOS), differential centrifugal sedimentation (DCS), and nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) were compared to the established techniques of transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning mobility particle sizing (SMPS), and dynamic light scattering (DLS). The size distributions were described using the mode, arithmetic mean, and standard deviation. Uncertainties associated with the six techniques were evaluated, including the statistical uncertainties in the mean sizes measured by the single-particle counting techniques. Q-Q plots were used to analyze the shapes of the size distributions. Through the use of complementary techniques for particle sizing, a more complete characterization of the particles was achieved, with additional information on their density and porosity attained.

Simultaneous measurement of rotational and translational diffusion of anisotropic colloids with a new integrated setup for fluorescence recovery after photobleaching

This paper describes an integrated setup for fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) for determining translational and rotational Brownian diffusion simultaneously, ensuring that these two quantities are measured under exactly the same conditions and at the same time in dynamic experiments. The setup is based on translational-FRAP with a fringe pattern of light for both the bleaching and monitoring of fluorescently labeled particles, and rotational-FRAP, which uses the polarization of a short bleach light pulse to create a polarization anisotropy. The fringe pattern of the probe beam is modulated in conjunction with a synchronized lock-in amplifier giving a fast, sensitive, ensemble-averaged measurement compared to microscope-image based techniques. The experimental polarization geometry we used ensures that the fluorescence emission is collected without polarization bias. Therefore, only the orientation of the absorption dipole moment of the fixed dye in the particles is measured, which simplifies interpretation of the data. The polarization is modulated rapidly between two orthogonal polarization states, giving the polarization anisotropy in one, single measurement. The rotational and translational Brownian diffusion of anisotropic colloids is measured for ellipsoids of revolution. This experiment shows that in this case the rotational correlation function matches a three-exponential decay in accordance with theoretical predictions.

Differential dynamic microscopy for anisotropic colloidal dynamics

Differential dynamic microscopy (DDM) is a low-cost, high-throughput technique recently developed for characterizing the isotropic diffusion of spherical colloids using white-light optical microscopy. (1) We develop the theory for applying DDM to probe the dynamics of anisotropic colloidal samples such as various ordered phases, or particles interacting with an external field. The q-dependent dynamics can be measured in any direction in the image plane. We demonstrate the method on a dilute aqueous dispersion of anisotropic magnetic particles (hematite) aligned in a magnetic field. The measured diffusion coefficients parallel and perpendicular to the field direction are in good agreement with theoretical values. We show how these measurements allow us to extract the orientational order parameter S(2) of the system.