1
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Patel RN, Goodfellow B, Heitsch AT, Smilgies DM, Korgel BA. Langmuir-Blodgett Transfer of Nanocrystal Monolayers: Layer Compaction, Layer Compression, and Lattice Stretching of the Transferred Layer. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 14:1192. [PMID: 39057869 PMCID: PMC11279929 DOI: 10.3390/nano14141192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2024] [Revised: 06/27/2024] [Accepted: 07/06/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024]
Abstract
Grazing incidence small angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS) was used to study the structure and interparticle spacing of monolayers of organic ligand-stabilized iron oxide nanocrystals floating at the air-water interface on a Langmuir trough, and after transfer to a solid support via the Langmuir-Blodgett technique. GISAXS measurements of the nanocrystal arrangement at the air-water interface showed that lateral compression decreased the interparticle spacing of continuous films. GISAXS also revealed that Langmuir-Blodgett transfer of the nanocrystal layers to a silicon substrate led to a stretching of the film, with a significant increase in interparticle spacing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reken N. Patel
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Center for Nano- and Molecular Science and Technology, Texas Materials Institute, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Brian Goodfellow
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Center for Nano- and Molecular Science and Technology, Texas Materials Institute, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Andrew T. Heitsch
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Center for Nano- and Molecular Science and Technology, Texas Materials Institute, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Detlef-M. Smilgies
- Cornell High Energy Synchrotron Source (CHESS), Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- R. F. Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Brian A. Korgel
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Center for Nano- and Molecular Science and Technology, Texas Materials Institute, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
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2
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Maiti S, Senavirathna LN, Minguez Bacho I, Menath J, Gruber W, Vogel N, Bachmann J, Unruh T. Highly Ordered Monolayers of μm-Sized Polystyrene Spheres Studied by Grazing-Incidence Small-Angle X-ray Scattering, Simulations, and Geometrical Calculations. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2024; 40:1185-1194. [PMID: 38166415 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.3c02219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2024]
Abstract
Unraveling the two-dimensional (2D) structural ordering of colloidal particles assembled at a flat surface is essential for understanding and optimizing their physical properties. So far, grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS) has been widely used to determine crystallographic information on 2D self-assembled structures of nanosize objects. However, solving the structure of 2D lattices consisting of micrometer (μm)-sized objects still remains a challenge using scattering methods. Here, a model 2D SCALMS (supported catalytically active liquid metal solution) template is fabricated from μm-sized polystyrene (PS) spheres that form a monolayer on top of the flat solid support. GISAXS patterns of the sample were collected for rotation angles around its surface normal in steps of 3°. For every rotation angle, different Bragg-type interference maxima along the out-of-plane (qz) direction were observed. On the basis of simulations of GISXAS patterns of single domains of ordered particle arrangements using the distorted wave Born approximation (DWBA) and validation against a simple geometrical scattering model, the interference maxima could nicely be interpreted to originate from a monolayer of the μm-sized spherical particles which are arranged in domains of hexagonal 2D paracrystalline order. This novel GISAXS evaluation technique serves as a proof of principle for determining the μm-size periodicity of 2D crystalline domains and demonstrates its potential to spatially resolve the relative orientations of such domains with respect to a reference direction.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Maiti
- Institute for Crystallography and Structural Physics, Department of Physics, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Staudstr. 3, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - L N Senavirathna
- Institute for Crystallography and Structural Physics, Department of Physics, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Staudstr. 3, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - I Minguez Bacho
- Chemistry of Thin Film Materials, Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, IZNF, Cauerstr. 3, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - J Menath
- Institute of Particle Technology, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Cauerstrasse 4, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - W Gruber
- Institute for Crystallography and Structural Physics, Department of Physics, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Staudstr. 3, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - N Vogel
- Institute of Particle Technology, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Cauerstrasse 4, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - J Bachmann
- Chemistry of Thin Film Materials, Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, IZNF, Cauerstr. 3, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - T Unruh
- Institute for Crystallography and Structural Physics, Department of Physics, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Staudstr. 3, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
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3
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Septianto RD, Miranti R, Kikitsu T, Hikima T, Hashizume D, Matsushita N, Iwasa Y, Bisri SZ. Enabling metallic behaviour in two-dimensional superlattice of semiconductor colloidal quantum dots. Nat Commun 2023; 14:2670. [PMID: 37236922 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-38216-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Semiconducting colloidal quantum dots and their assemblies exhibit superior optical properties owing to the quantum confinement effect. Thus, they are attracting tremendous interest from fundamental research to commercial applications. However, the electrical conducting properties remain detrimental predominantly due to the orientational disorder of quantum dots in the assembly. Here we report high conductivity and the consequent metallic behaviour of semiconducting colloidal quantum dots of lead sulphide. Precise facet orientation control to forming highly-ordered quasi-2-dimensional epitaxially-connected quantum dot superlattices is vital for high conductivity. The intrinsically high mobility over 10 cm2 V-1 s-1 and temperature-independent behaviour proved the high potential of semiconductor quantum dots for electrical conducting properties. Furthermore, the continuously tunable subband filling will enable quantum dot superlattices to be a future platform for emerging physical properties investigations, such as strongly correlated and topological states, as demonstrated in the moiré superlattices of twisted bilayer graphene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricky Dwi Septianto
- RIKEN Center for Emergent Matter Science (CEMS), 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro, Tokyo, 152-8550, Japan
| | - Retno Miranti
- RIKEN Center for Emergent Matter Science (CEMS), 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
| | - Tomoka Kikitsu
- RIKEN Center for Emergent Matter Science (CEMS), 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
| | - Takaaki Hikima
- RIKEN SPring-8 Center, 1-1-1 Kouto, Sayo, Hyogo, 679-5198, Japan
| | - Daisuke Hashizume
- RIKEN Center for Emergent Matter Science (CEMS), 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
| | - Nobuhiro Matsushita
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro, Tokyo, 152-8550, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Iwasa
- RIKEN Center for Emergent Matter Science (CEMS), 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
- Quantum Phase Electronic Center (QPEC) and Department of Applied Physics, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan
| | - Satria Zulkarnaen Bisri
- RIKEN Center for Emergent Matter Science (CEMS), 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan.
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro, Tokyo, 152-8550, Japan.
- Department of Applied Physics and Chemical Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 2-24-16 Nakacho, Koganei, Tokyo, 184-8588, Japan.
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4
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Smilgies D. GISAXS
: A versatile tool to assess structure and self‐assembly kinetics in block copolymer thin films. JOURNAL OF POLYMER SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/pol.20210244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Detlef‐M. Smilgies
- Center for Advanced Microelectronics Manufacturing (CAMM) Binghamton University Binghamton New York USA
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences Binghamton University Binghamton New York USA
- Materials Science and Engineering Program Binghamton University Binghamton New York USA
- R.F. Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering Cornell University Ithaca New York USA
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5
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Balazs DM, Dunbar TA, Smilgies DM, Hanrath T. Coupled Dynamics of Colloidal Nanoparticle Spreading and Self-Assembly at a Fluid-Fluid Interface. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2020; 36:6106-6115. [PMID: 32390432 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.0c00524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
We investigated the physicochemical and transport phenomena governing the self-assembly of colloidal nanoparticles at the interface of two immiscible fluids. By combining in situ grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS) with a temporal resolution of 200 ms and electron microscopy measurements, we gained new insights into the coupled effects of solvent spreading, nanoparticle assembly, and recession of the vapor-liquid interface on the morphology of the self-assembled thin films. We focus on oleate-passivated PbSe nanoparticles dispersed across an ethylene glycol subphase as a model system and demonstrate how solvent parameters such as surface tension, nanoparticle solubility, aromaticity, and polarity influence the mesoscale morphology of the nanoparticle superlattice. We discovered that a nanoparticle precursor monolayer film spreads in front of the bulk solution and influences the fluid spreading across the subphase. Improved understanding of the impact of kinetic phenomena (i.e., solvent spreading and evaporation) on the superlattice morphology is important to describe the formation mechanism and ultimately enable the assembly of high-quality superlattices with long-range order.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel M Balazs
- Robert F. Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Tyler A Dunbar
- Robert F. Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Detlef-M Smilgies
- Robert F. Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
- Cornell High Energy Synchrotron Source (CHESS), Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Tobias Hanrath
- Robert F. Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
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6
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Xia P, Davies DW, Patel BB, Qin M, Liang Z, Graham KR, Diao Y, Tang ML. Spin-coated fluorinated PbS QD superlattice thin film with high hole mobility. NANOSCALE 2020; 12:11174-11181. [PMID: 32406467 DOI: 10.1039/d0nr02299c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Motivated by the oleophobic and electron-withdrawing nature of perfluorocarbons, we explore the effect of a trifluoromethyl coating on lead sulfide quantum dots (PbS QDs) in thin film transistor (TFT) geometry. The low surface energy conferred by the oleophobic perfluorocarbons creates QDs packed in a primitive cubic lattice with long range order, as confirmed by grazing incidence small angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Hole mobilities as high as 0.085 cm2 V-1 s-1 were measured in the TFTs. No electron transport was observed. This suggests that the electron-withdrawing nature of the trifluoromethyl ligand is eclipsed by the excess holes present in the PbS QDs that likely stem from cation vacancies induced by the thiol group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pan Xia
- Department of Chemistry & Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of California, Riverside, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, California 92521, USA.
| | - Daniel W Davies
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - Bijal B Patel
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - Maotong Qin
- Department of Materials Chemistry, School of Chemistry and Materials Science, University of Science and Technology of China, NO. 96 Jinzhai Road, Hefei, Anhui, 230026 P. R. China
| | - Zhiming Liang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506, USA
| | - Kenneth R Graham
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506, USA
| | - Ying Diao
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - Ming Lee Tang
- Department of Chemistry & Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of California, Riverside, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, California 92521, USA.
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7
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Maiti S, Maiti S, Maier A, Banerjee R, Shen C, Murphy BM, Scheele M, Schreiber F. In situ formation of electronically coupled superlattices of Cu 1.1S nanodiscs at the liquid/air interface. Chem Commun (Camb) 2019; 55:4805-4808. [DOI: 10.1039/c9cc01758e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
We report on the in situ monitoring of the formation of conductive superlattices of Cu1.1S nanodiscs via cross-linking with semiconducting cobalt 4,4′,4′′,4′′′-tetraaminophthalocyanine (CoTAPc) molecules at the liquid/air interface by real-time grazing incidence small angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonam Maiti
- Institute of Applied Physics
- University of Tübingen
- 72076 Tübingen
- Germany
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry
| | - Santanu Maiti
- Institute of Applied Physics
- University of Tübingen
- 72076 Tübingen
- Germany
| | - Andre Maier
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry
- University of Tübingen
- 72076 Tübingen
- Germany
| | - Rupak Banerjee
- Department of Physics
- Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar
- Gandhinagar 382355
- India
| | - Chen Shen
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY
- D-22607 Hamburg
- Germany
| | - Bridget M. Murphy
- Institute for Experimental and Applied Physics
- Kiel University
- D-24098 Kiel
- Germany
- Ruprecht-Haensel Laboratory
| | - Marcus Scheele
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry
- University of Tübingen
- 72076 Tübingen
- Germany
- Center for Light-Matter Interaction
| | - Frank Schreiber
- Institute of Applied Physics
- University of Tübingen
- 72076 Tübingen
- Germany
- Center for Light-Matter Interaction
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8
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Abstract
Grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS) is a powerful technique for measuring the nanostructure of coatings and thin films. However, GISAXS data are plagued by distortions that complicate data analysis. The detector image is a warped representation of reciprocal space because of refraction, and overlapping scattering patterns appear because of reflection. A method is presented to unwarp GISAXS data, recovering an estimate of the true undistorted scattering pattern. The method consists of first generating a guess for the structure of the reciprocal-space scattering by solving for a mutually consistent prediction from the transmission and reflection sub-components. This initial guess is then iteratively refined by fitting experimental GISAXS images at multiple incident angles, using the distorted-wave Born approximation (DWBA) to convert between reciprocal space and detector space. This method converges to a high-quality reconstruction for the undistorted scattering, as validated by comparing with grazing-transmission scattering data. This new method for unwarping GISAXS images will broaden the applicability of grazing-incidence techniques, allowing experimenters to inspect undistorted visualizations of their data and allowing a broader range of analysis methods to be applied to GI data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiliang Liu
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | - Kevin G. Yager
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
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9
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Yu Y, Guillaussier A, Voggu VR, Houck DW, Smilgies DM, Korgel BA. Bubble Assemblies of Nanocrystals: Superlattices without a Substrate. J Phys Chem Lett 2017; 8:4865-4871. [PMID: 28933866 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.7b01595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
A method was developed to create free-standing nanocrystal films in the form of solidified bubbles. Bubbles of octadecanethiol-capped gold nanocrystals were studied by in situ grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS) to determine how the absence of an underlying substrate influences a disorder-order transition of a nanocrystal superlattice. We find that the presence of the substrate does not significantly change the nature of the disorder-order transition but does lead to reduced interparticle separation and reduced thermal expansion. Bubble assemblies of silicon and copper selenide nanocrystals are also demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yixuan Yu
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering and Texas Materials Institute, The University of Texas at Austin , Austin, Texas 78712-1062, United States
| | - Adrien Guillaussier
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering and Texas Materials Institute, The University of Texas at Austin , Austin, Texas 78712-1062, United States
| | - Vikas Reddy Voggu
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering and Texas Materials Institute, The University of Texas at Austin , Austin, Texas 78712-1062, United States
| | - Daniel W Houck
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering and Texas Materials Institute, The University of Texas at Austin , Austin, Texas 78712-1062, United States
| | - Detlef-M Smilgies
- Cornell High Energy Synchrotron Source (CHESS), Cornell University , Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Brian A Korgel
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering and Texas Materials Institute, The University of Texas at Austin , Austin, Texas 78712-1062, United States
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10
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Paik T, Yun H, Fleury B, Hong SH, Jo PS, Wu Y, Oh SJ, Cargnello M, Yang H, Murray CB, Kagan CR. Hierarchical Materials Design by Pattern Transfer Printing of Self-Assembled Binary Nanocrystal Superlattices. NANO LETTERS 2017; 17:1387-1394. [PMID: 28146634 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b04279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate the fabrication of hierarchical materials by controlling the structure of highly ordered binary nanocrystal superlattices (BNSLs) on multiple length scales. Combinations of magnetic, plasmonic, semiconducting, and insulating colloidal nanocrystal (NC) building blocks are self-assembled into BNSL membranes via the liquid-interfacial assembly technique. Free-standing BNSL membranes are transferred onto topographically structured poly(dimethylsiloxane) molds via the Langmuir-Schaefer technique and then deposited in patterns onto substrates via transfer printing. BNSLs with different structural motifs are successfully patterned into various meso- and microstructures such as lines, circles, and even three-dimensional grids across large-area substrates. A combination of electron microscopy and grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS) measurements confirm the ordering of NC building blocks in meso- and micropatterned BNSLs. This technique demonstrates structural diversity in the design of hierarchical materials by assembling BNSLs from NC building blocks of different composition and size by patterning BNSLs into various size and shape superstructures of interest for a broad range of applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taejong Paik
- School of Integrative Engineering, Chung-Ang University , Seoul, 06974, South Korea
| | | | | | - Sung-Hoon Hong
- Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute , Daejeon, 34129, South Korea
| | - Pil Sung Jo
- Complex Assemblies of Soft Matter, CNRS-SOLVAY-PENN UMI 3254 , Bristol, Pennsylvania 19007, United States
| | | | - Soong-Ju Oh
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Korea University , Seoul 02841, South Korea
| | - Matteo Cargnello
- Department of Chemical Engineering and SUNCAT Center for Interface Science and Catalysis, Stanford University , Stanford, California 94305, United States
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11
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Posselt D, Zhang J, Smilgies DM, Berezkin AV, Potemkin II, Papadakis CM. Restructuring in block copolymer thin films: In situ GISAXS investigations during solvent vapor annealing. Prog Polym Sci 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2016.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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12
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Majewski PW, Yager KG. Rapid ordering of block copolymer thin films. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS. CONDENSED MATTER : AN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS JOURNAL 2016; 28:403002. [PMID: 27537062 DOI: 10.1088/0953-8984/28/40/403002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Block-copolymers self-assemble into diverse morphologies, where nanoscale order can be finely tuned via block architecture and processing conditions. However, the ultimate usage of these materials in real-world applications may be hampered by the extremely long thermal annealing times-hours or days-required to achieve good order. Here, we provide an overview of the fundamentals of block-copolymer self-assembly kinetics, and review the techniques that have been demonstrated to influence, and enhance, these ordering kinetics. We discuss the inherent tradeoffs between oven annealing, solvent annealing, microwave annealing, zone annealing, and other directed self-assembly methods; including an assessment of spatial and temporal characteristics. We also review both real-space and reciprocal-space analysis techniques for quantifying order in these systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pawel W Majewski
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, USA. Department of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
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13
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Abstract
X-ray scattering is a structural characterization tool that has impacted diverse fields of study. It is unique in its ability to examine materials in real time and under realistic sample environments, enabling researchers to understand morphology at nanometer and angstrom length scales using complementary small and wide angle X-ray scattering (SAXS, WAXS), respectively. Herein, we focus on the use of SAXS to examine nanoscale particulate systems. We provide a theoretical foundation for X-ray scattering, considering both form factor and structure factor, as well as the use of correlation functions, which may be used to determine a particle's size, size distribution, shape, and organization into hierarchical structures. The theory is expanded upon with contemporary use cases. Both transmission and reflection (grazing incidence) geometries are addressed, as well as the combination of SAXS with other X-ray and non-X-ray characterization tools. We conclude with an examination of several key areas of research where X-ray scattering has played a pivotal role, including in situ nanoparticle synthesis, nanoparticle assembly, and operando studies of catalysts and energy storage materials. Throughout this review we highlight the unique capabilities of X-ray scattering for structural characterization of materials in their native environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Li
- X-ray Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory , 9700 South Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Andrew J Senesi
- X-ray Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory , 9700 South Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Byeongdu Lee
- X-ray Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory , 9700 South Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States
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14
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Yang J, Choi MK, Kim DH, Hyeon T. Designed Assembly and Integration of Colloidal Nanocrystals for Device Applications. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2016; 28:1176-207. [PMID: 26707709 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201502851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2015] [Revised: 07/31/2015] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Colloidal nanocrystals have been intensively studied over the past three decades due to their unique properties that originate, in large part, from their nanometer-scale sizes. For applications in electronic and optoelectronic devices, colloidal nanoparticles are generally employed as assembled nanocrystal solids, rather than as individual particles. Consequently, tailoring 2D patterns as well as 3D architectures of assembled nanocrystals is critical for their various applications to micro- and nanoscale devices. Here, recent advances in the designed assembly, film fabrication, and printing/integration methods for colloidal nanocrystals are presented. The advantages and drawbacks of these methods are compared, and various device applications of assembled/integrated colloidal nanocrystal solids are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiwoong Yang
- Center for Nanoparticle Research, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Seoul, 151-742, Republic of Korea
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul, 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Moon Kee Choi
- Center for Nanoparticle Research, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Seoul, 151-742, Republic of Korea
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul, 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Dae-Hyeong Kim
- Center for Nanoparticle Research, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Seoul, 151-742, Republic of Korea
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul, 151-742, Republic of Korea
| | - Taeghwan Hyeon
- Center for Nanoparticle Research, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Seoul, 151-742, Republic of Korea
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul, 151-742, Republic of Korea
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15
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Vorobiev A, Khassanov A, Ukleev V, Snigireva I, Konovalov O. Substantial Difference in Ordering of 10, 15, and 20 nm Iron Oxide Nanoparticles on a Water Surface: In Situ Characterization by the Grazing Incidence X-ray Scattering. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2015; 31:11639-11648. [PMID: 26399881 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.5b02644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
In the present study, for the first time, a unique combination of in situ grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering and X-ray reflectivity, accompanied by the pressure-area isotherm analysis, Brewster angle microscopy, and ex situ scanning electron microscopy, was applied for investigation of two-dimensional superlattices of magnetic nanoparticles as they form on a water surface in a Langmuir trough. Iron oxide particles of different sizes stabilized with a single layer of oleic acid were used. It is demonstrated that monodisperse 10 nm particles on a water surface reproducibly form identical highly ordered monolayers in a wide range of experimental conditions, while monodisperse 20 nm particles always form compact three-dimensional clusters and never the monolayers. Monodisperse particles of an intermediate size, 15 nm in diameter, build a metastable monolayer, which shows a tendency for spontaneous transformation to bi-, tri-, and multilayer islands. The importance to use both grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering and X-ray reflectivity together with the complementary techniques, to avoid misinterpretation of separate experimental data sets, is underlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Vorobiev
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Uppsala University , Box 516, 751 20 Uppsala, Sweden
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility , 71 Avenue des Martyrs, CS 40220, 38043 Grenoble Cedex 9, France
| | - A Khassanov
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility , 71 Avenue des Martyrs, CS 40220, 38043 Grenoble Cedex 9, France
- Organic Materials and Devices, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg , Martensstraße 7, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - V Ukleev
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Uppsala University , Box 516, 751 20 Uppsala, Sweden
- Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute , Orlova Roscha, Gatchina, St. Petersburg 188300, Russia
| | - I Snigireva
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility , 71 Avenue des Martyrs, CS 40220, 38043 Grenoble Cedex 9, France
| | - O Konovalov
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility , 71 Avenue des Martyrs, CS 40220, 38043 Grenoble Cedex 9, France
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16
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Abstract
Small-angle scattering formulae for crystalline assemblies of arbitrary particles are derived from powder diffraction theory using the decoupling approximation. To do so, the pseudo-lattice factor is defined, and methods to overcome the limitations of the decoupling approximation are investigated. Further, approximated equations are suggested for the diffuse scattering from various defects of the first kind due to non-ideal particles, including size polydispersity, orientational disorder and positional fluctuation about their ideal positions. Calculated curves using the formalism developed herein are compared with numerical simulations computed without any approximation. For a finite-sized assembly, the scattering from the whole domain of the assembly must also be included, and this is derived using the correlation function approach.
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17
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Goodfellow BW, Yu Y, Bosoy CA, Smilgies DM, Korgel BA. The Role of Ligand Packing Frustration in Body-Centered Cubic (bcc) Superlattices of Colloidal Nanocrystals. J Phys Chem Lett 2015; 6:2406-2412. [PMID: 26266710 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.5b00946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
This paper addresses the assembly of body centered-cubic (bcc) superlattices of organic ligand-coated nanocrystals. First, examples of bcc superlattices of dodecanethiol-capped Au nanocrystals and oleic acid-capped PbS and PbSe nanocrystals are presented and examined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS). These superlattices tend to orient on their densest (110) superlattice planes and exhibit a significant amount of {112} twinning. The same nanocrystals deposit as monolayers with hexagonal packing, and these thin films can coexist with thicker bcc superlattice layers, even though there is no hexagonal plane in a bcc lattice. Both the preference of bcc in bulk films over the denser face-centered cubic (fcc) superlattice structure and the transition to hexagonal monolayers can be rationalized in terms of packing frustration of the ligands. A model is presented to calculate the difference in entropy associated with capping ligand packing frustration in bcc and fcc superlattices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian W Goodfellow
- †McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas Materials Institute, Center for Nano and Molecular Science and Technology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712-1062, United States
| | - Yixuan Yu
- †McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas Materials Institute, Center for Nano and Molecular Science and Technology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712-1062, United States
| | - Christian A Bosoy
- †McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas Materials Institute, Center for Nano and Molecular Science and Technology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712-1062, United States
| | - Detlef-M Smilgies
- ‡Cornell High Energy Synchrotron Source (CHESS), Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Brian A Korgel
- †McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas Materials Institute, Center for Nano and Molecular Science and Technology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712-1062, United States
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18
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Yu Y, Goodfellow BW, Rasch M, Bosoy C, Smilgies DM, Korgel BA. Role of Halides in the Ordered Structure Transitions of Heated Gold Nanocrystal Superlattices. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2015; 31:6924-32. [PMID: 26013597 PMCID: PMC4479963 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.5b01498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Dodecanethiol-capped gold (Au) nanocrystal superlattices can undergo a surprisingly diverse series of ordered structure transitions when heated (Goodfellow, B. W.; Rasch, M. R.; Hessel, C. M.; Patel, R. N.; Smilgies, D.-M.; Korgel, B. A. Nano Lett. 2013, 13, 5710-5714). These are the result of highly uniform changes in nanocrystal size, which subsequently force a spontaneous rearrangement of superlattice structure. Here, we show that halide-containing surfactants play an essential role in these transitions. In the absence of any halide-containing surfactant, superlattices of dodecanethiol-capped (1.9-nm-diameter) Au nanocrystals do not change size until reaching about 190-205 °C, at which point the gold cores coalesce. In the presence of halide-containing surfactant, such as tetraoctylphosphonium bromide (TOPB) or tetraoctylammounium bromide (TOAB), the nanocrystals ripen at much lower temperature and superlattices undergo various ordered structure transitions upon heating. Chloride- and iodide-containing surfactants induce similar behavior, destabilizing the Au-thiol bond and reducing the thermal stability of the nanocrystals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yixuan Yu
- McKetta
Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas Materials Institute and
Center for Nano- and Molecular Science and Technology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712-1062, United States
| | - Brian W. Goodfellow
- McKetta
Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas Materials Institute and
Center for Nano- and Molecular Science and Technology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712-1062, United States
| | - Michael
R. Rasch
- McKetta
Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas Materials Institute and
Center for Nano- and Molecular Science and Technology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712-1062, United States
| | - Christian Bosoy
- McKetta
Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas Materials Institute and
Center for Nano- and Molecular Science and Technology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712-1062, United States
| | - Detlef-M. Smilgies
- Cornell
High Energy Synchrotron Source (CHESS), Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Brian A. Korgel
- McKetta
Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas Materials Institute and
Center for Nano- and Molecular Science and Technology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712-1062, United States
- E-mail:
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19
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Yu Y, Jain A, Guillaussier A, Voggu VR, Truskett TM, Smilgies DM, Korgel BA. Nanocrystal superlattices that exhibit improved order on heating: an example of inverse melting? Faraday Discuss 2015; 181:181-92. [DOI: 10.1039/c5fd00006h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Grazing incidence small angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS) measurements reveal that superlattices of 1.7 nm diameter, gold (Au) nanocrystals capped with octadecanethiol become significantly more ordered when heated to moderate temperatures (50–60 °C). This enhancement in order is reversible and the superlattice returns to its initially disordered structure when cooled back to room temperature. Disorder–order transition temperatures were estimated from the GISAXS data using the Hansen–Verlet criterion. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) measurements of the superlattices exhibited exotherms (associated with disordering during cooling) and endotherms (associated with ordering during heating) near the transition temperatures. The superlattice transition temperatures also correspond approximately to the melting and solidification points of octadecanethiol. Therefore, it appears that a change in capping ligand packing that occurs upon ligand melting underlies the structural transition of the superlattices. We liken the heat-induced ordering of the superlattices to an inverse melting transition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yixuan Yu
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering
- Texas Materials Institute
- Center for Nano- and Molecular Science and Technology
- The University of Texas at Austin
- Austin
| | - Avni Jain
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering
- Texas Materials Institute
- Center for Nano- and Molecular Science and Technology
- The University of Texas at Austin
- Austin
| | - Adrien Guillaussier
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering
- Texas Materials Institute
- Center for Nano- and Molecular Science and Technology
- The University of Texas at Austin
- Austin
| | - Vikas Reddy Voggu
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering
- Texas Materials Institute
- Center for Nano- and Molecular Science and Technology
- The University of Texas at Austin
- Austin
| | - Thomas M. Truskett
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering
- Texas Materials Institute
- Center for Nano- and Molecular Science and Technology
- The University of Texas at Austin
- Austin
| | - Detlef-M. Smilgies
- Cornell High Energy Synchrotron Source (CHESS)
- Cornell University
- Ithaca
- USA
| | - Brian A. Korgel
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering
- Texas Materials Institute
- Center for Nano- and Molecular Science and Technology
- The University of Texas at Austin
- Austin
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20
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Connecting the particles in the box--controlled fusion of hexamer nanocrystal clusters within an AB₆ binary nanocrystal superlattice. Sci Rep 2014; 4:6731. [PMID: 25339169 PMCID: PMC4206872 DOI: 10.1038/srep06731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2014] [Accepted: 09/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Binary nanocrystal superlattices present unique opportunities to create novel interconnected nanostructures by partial fusion of specific components of the superlattice. Here, we demonstrate the binary AB6 superlattice of PbSe and Fe2O3 nanocrystals as a model system to transform the central hexamer of PbSe nanocrystals into a single fused particle. We present detailed structural analysis of the superlattices by combining high-resolution X-ray scattering and electron microscopy. Molecular dynamics simulations show optimum separation of nanocrystals in agreement with the experiment and provide insights into the molecular configuration of surface ligands. We describe the concept of nanocrystal superlattices as a versatile ‘nanoreactor' to create and study novel materials based on precisely defined size, composition and structure of nanocrystals into a mesostructured cluster. We demonstrate ‘controlled fusion' of nanocrystals in the clusters in reactions initiated by thermal treatment and pulsed laser annealing.
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21
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Orsi D, Ruta B, Chushkin Y, Pucci A, Ruggeri G, Baldi G, Rimoldi T, Cristofolini L. Controlling the dynamics of a bidimensional gel above and below its percolation transition. PHYSICAL REVIEW. E, STATISTICAL, NONLINEAR, AND SOFT MATTER PHYSICS 2014; 89:042308. [PMID: 24827252 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.89.042308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The morphology and the microscopic internal dynamics of a bidimensional gel formed by spontaneous aggregation of gold nanoparticles confined at the water surface are investigated by a suite of techniques, including grazing-incidence x-ray photon correlation spectroscopy (GI-XPCS). The range of concentrations studied spans across the percolation transition for the formation of the gel. The dynamical features observed by GI-XPCS are interpreted in view of the results of microscopic imaging; an intrinsic link between the mechanical modulus and internal dynamics is demonstrated for all the concentrations. Our work presents an example of a transition from a stretched to a compressed correlation function actively controlled by quasistatically varying the relevant thermodynamic variable. Moreover, by applying a model proposed some time ago by Duri and Cipelletti [Europhys. Lett. 76, 972 (2006)] we are able to build a master curve for the shape parameter, whose scaling factor allows us to quantify a "long-time displacement length." This characteristic length is shown to converge, as the concentration is increased, to the "short-time localization length" determined by pseudo-Debye-Waller analysis of the initial contrast. Finally, the intrinsic dynamics of the system is then compared with that induced by means of a delicate mechanical perturbation applied to the interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Orsi
- Department of Physics and Earth Sciences, University of Parma, Viale Usberti 7/A, I-43124 Parma, Italy
| | - B Ruta
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Boîte Postale 220, F-38043 Grenoble, France
| | - Y Chushkin
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Boîte Postale 220, F-38043 Grenoble, France
| | - A Pucci
- Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, University of Pisa, Via Risorgimento 35, I-56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - G Ruggeri
- Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, University of Pisa, Via Risorgimento 35, I-56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - G Baldi
- IMEM-CNR Institute, Parma Science Park, I-43124 Parma, Italy
| | - T Rimoldi
- Department of Physics and Earth Sciences, University of Parma, Viale Usberti 7/A, I-43124 Parma, Italy
| | - L Cristofolini
- Department of Physics and Earth Sciences, University of Parma, Viale Usberti 7/A, I-43124 Parma, Italy
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22
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Panduro EAC, Granlund H, Sztucki M, Konovalov O, Breiby DW, Gibaud A. Using three-dimensional 3D grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS) analysis to probe pore deformation in mesoporous silica films. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2014; 6:2686-2691. [PMID: 24496209 DOI: 10.1021/am404602t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
In the past decade, remarkable progress has been made in studying nanoscale objects deposited on surfaces by grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS). However, unravelling the structural properties of mesostructured thin films containing highly organized internal three-dimensional (3D) structures remains a challenging issue, because of the lack of efficient algorithms that allow prediction of the GISAXS intensity patterns. Previous attempts to calculate intensities have mostly been limited to cases of two-dimensional (2D) assemblies of nanoparticles at surfaces, or have been adapted to specific 3D cases. Here, we demonstrate that highly organized 3D mesoscale structures (for example, porous networks) can be modeled by the combined use of established crystallography formalism and the Distorted Wave Born Approximation (DWBA). Taking advantage of the near-zero intensity of symmetry-allowed Bragg reflections, the casual extinction or existence of certain reflections related to the anisotropy of the form factor of the pores can be used as a highly sensitive method to extract structural information. We employ this generic method to probe the slightly compressed anisotropic shape and orientation of pores in a mesoporous silica thin film having P63/mmc symmetry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elvia Anabela Chavez Panduro
- LUNAM, UMR CNRS 6283, Université du Maine, Faculté des Sciences et Technologie , Bd O. Messiaen, 72085 Le Mans, Cedex 09, France
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23
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Bhattacharya R, Basu J. Microscopic dynamics of nanoparticle monolayers at air–water interface. J Colloid Interface Sci 2013; 396:69-74. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2013.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2012] [Revised: 12/01/2012] [Accepted: 01/02/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Lu X, Yager KG, Johnston D, Black CT, Ocko BM. Grazing-incidence transmission X-ray scattering: surface scattering in the Born approximation. J Appl Crystallogr 2013. [DOI: 10.1107/s0021889812047887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Determination of the three-dimensional order in thin nanostructured films remains challenging. Real-space imaging methods, including electron microscopies and scanning-probe methods, have difficulty reconstructing the depth of a film and suffer from limited statistical sampling. X-ray and neutron scattering have emerged as powerful complementary techniques but have substantial data collection and analysis challenges. This article describes a new method, grazing-incidence transmission small-angle X-ray scattering, which allows for fast scattering measurements that are not burdened by the refraction and reflection effects that have to date plagued grazing-incidence X-ray scattering. In particular, by arranging a sample/beam geometry wherein the scattering exits through the edge of the substrate, it is possible to record scattering images that are well described by straightforward (Born approximation) scattering models.
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25
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Yu Y, Bosoy CA, Hessel CM, Smilgies DM, Korgel BA. Silicon nanocrystal superlattices. Chemphyschem 2012; 14:84-7. [PMID: 23172741 DOI: 10.1002/cphc.201200738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yixuan Yu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas Materials Institute and Center for Nano- and Molecular Science and Technology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712-1062, USA
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26
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Vegso K, Siffalovic P, Majkova E, Jergel M, Benkovicova M, Kocsis T, Weis M, Luby S, Nygård K, Konovalov O. Nonequilibrium phases of nanoparticle Langmuir films. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2012; 28:10409-10414. [PMID: 22724517 DOI: 10.1021/la301764t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
We report on an in-situ observation of the colloidal silver nanoparticle self-assembly into a close-packed monolayer at the air/water interface followed by a 2D to 3D transition. Using the fast tracking GISAXS technique, we were able to observe the immediate response to the compression of the self-assembled nanoparticle layer at the air/water interface and to identify all relevant intermediate stages including those far from the equilibrium. In particular, a new nonequilibrium phase before the monolayer collapse via the 2D to 3D transition was found that is inaccessible by the competing direct space imaging techniques such as the scanning and transmission electron microscopies due to the high water vapor pressure and surface tension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karol Vegso
- Institute of Physics, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dubravska cesta 9, 845 11 Bratislava, Slovakia
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