Proton Conducting Ionic Liquid Organization as Probed by NMR: Self-Diffusion Coefficients and Heteronuclear Correlations

NMR studies of lithium and sodium battery electrolytes

This review focuses on the application of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy in the study of lithium and sodium battery electrolytes. Lithium-ion batteries are widely used in electronic devices, electric vehicles, and renewable energy systems due to their high energy density, long cycle life, and low self-discharge rate. The sodium analog is still in the research phase, but has significant potential for future development. In both cases, the electrolyte plays a critical role in the performance and safety of these batteries. NMR spectroscopy provides a non-invasive and non-destructive method for investigating the structure, dynamics, and interactions of the electrolyte components, including the salts, solvents, and additives, at the molecular level. This work attempts to give a nearly comprehensive overview of the ways that NMR spectroscopy, both liquid and solid state, has been used in past and present studies of various electrolyte systems, including liquid, gel, and solid-state electrolytes, and highlights the insights gained from these studies into the fundamental mechanisms of ion transport, electrolyte stability, and electrode-electrolyte interfaces, including interphase formation and surface microstructure growth. Overviews of the NMR methods used and of the materials covered are presented in the first two chapters. The rest of the review is divided into chapters based on the types of electrolyte materials studied, and discusses representative examples of the types of insights that NMR can provide.

Anion and ether group influence in protic guanidinium ionic liquids

Ionic liquids are attractive liquid materials for many advanced applications. For targeted design, in-depth knowledge about their structure-property-relations is urgently needed. We prepared a set of novel protic ionic liquids (PILs) with a guanidinium cation with either an ether or alkyl side chain and different anions. While being a promising cation class, the available data is insufficient to guide design. We measured thermal and transport properties, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra as well as liquid and crystalline structures supported by ab initio computations and were able to obtain a detailed insight into the influence of the anion and the ether substitution on the physical and spectroscopic properties. For the PILs, hydrogen bonding is the main interaction between cation and anion and the H-bond strength is inversely related to the proton affinity of the constituting acid and correlated to the increase of ¹H and ¹⁵N chemical shifts. Using anions from acids with lower proton affinity leads to proton localization on the cation as evident from NMR spectra and self-diffusion coefficients. In contrast, proton exchange was evident in ionic liquids with triflate and trifluoroacetate anions. Using imide-type anions and ether side groups decreases glass transitions as well as fragility, and accelerated dynamics significantly. In case of the ether guanidinium ionic liquids, the conformation of the side chain adopts a curled structure as the result of dispersion interactions, while the alkyl chains prefer a linear arrangement.

Implications of Anion Structure on Physicochemical Properties of DBU-Based Protic Ionic Liquids

Protic ionic liquids (PILs) are potential candidates as electrolyte components in energy storage devices. When replacing flammable and volatile organic solvents, PILs are expected to improve the safety and performance of electrochemical devices. Considering their technical application, a challenging task is the understanding of the key factors governing their intermolecular interactions and physicochemical properties. The present work intends to investigate the effects of the structural features on the properties of a promising PIL based on the 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene (DBUH⁺) cation and the (trifluoromethanesulfonyl)(nonafluorobutanesulfonyl)imide (IM14^–) anion, the latter being a remarkably large anion with an uneven distribution of the C–F pool between the two sides of the sulfonylimide moieties. For comparison purposes, the experimental investigations were extended to PILs composed of the same DBU-based cation and the trifluoromethanesulfonate (TFO^–) or bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (TFSI^–) anion. The combined use of multiple NMR methods, thermal analyses, density, viscosity, and conductivity measurements provides a deep characterization of the PILs, unveiling peculiar behaviors in DBUH-IM14, which cannot be predicted solely on the basis of differences between aqueous pK_a values of the protonated base and the acid (ΔpK_a). Interestingly, the thermal and electrochemical properties of DBUH-IM14 turn out to be markedly governed by the size and asymmetric nature of the anion. This observation highlights that the structural features of the precursors are an important tool to tailor the PIL’s properties according to the specific application.

Assessing the Structure of Protic Ionic Liquids Based on Triethylammonium and Organic Acid Anions

We present a computational analysis of the short-range structure of three protic ionic liquids based on strong organic acids: trifluoracetate, methanesulfonate, and triflate of triethylammonium. Accurate ab initio computations carried out on the gas-phase dimers show that the protonation of triethylamine is spontaneous. We have identified the anion-cation binding motif that is due to the presence of a strong hydrogen bond and to electrostatic interactions. The strength of the hydrogen bond and the magnitude of the binding energy decrease in the order trifluoroacetate ≳ methanesulfonate > triflate. The corresponding simulations of the bulk phases, obtained using a semiempirical evaluation of the interatomic forces, reveal that on short timescales, the state of the three liquids remains highly ionized and that the gas-phase cation-/anion-binding motif is preserved while no other peculiar structural features seem to emerge.

Extension of the CL&Pol Polarizable Force Field to Electrolytes, Protic Ionic Liquids, and Deep Eutectic Solvents

The polarizable CL&Pol force field presented in our previous study, Transferable, Polarizable Force Field for Ionic Liquids (J. Chem. Theory Comput. 2019, 15, 5858, DOI: http://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jctc.9b0068910.1021/acs.jctc.9b00689), is extended to electrolytes, protic ionic liquids (PIL), deep eutectic solvents (DES), and glycols. These systems are problematic in polarizable simulations because they contain either small, highly charged ions or strong hydrogen bonds, which cause trajectory instabilities due to the pull exerted on the induced dipoles. We use a Tang-Toennies (TT) function to dampen, or smear, the interactions between charges and induced dipole at a short range involving small, highly charged atoms (such as hydrogen or lithium), thus preventing the "polarization catastrophe". The new force field gives stable trajectories and is validated through comparison with experimental data on density, viscosity, and ion diffusion coefficients of liquid systems of the above-mentioned classes. The results also shed light on the hydrogen-bonding pattern in ethylammonium nitrate, a PIL, for which the literature contains conflicting views. We describe the implementation of the TT damping function, of the temperature-grouped Nosé-Hoover thermostat for polarizable molecular dynamics (MD) and of the periodic perturbation method for viscosity evaluation from non-equilibrium trajectories in the LAMMPS MD code. The main result of this work is the wider applicability of the CL&Pol polarizable force field to new, important classes of fluids, achieving robust trajectories and a good description of equilibrium and transport properties in challenging systems. The fragment-based approach of CL&Pol will allow ready extension to a wide variety of PILs, DES, and electrolytes.

Insights into the translational and rotational dynamics of cations and anions in protic ionic liquids by means of NMR fast-field-cycling relaxometry

Understanding the translational and rotational dynamics of cations and anions in hydrogen bonded protic ionic liquids (PIls) is still a challenge. In this study, we determine self-diffusion coefficients and rotational correlation times of both ions in triethylammonium based PILs by means of NMR Fast-Field-Cycling (FFC) relaxometry. Global fits of 1H and 19F nuclear magnetic relaxation dispersion (NMRD) curves allowed proper separation into intra and inter molecular relaxation rates for both NMR sensitive nuclei and thus a reliable description of translational and rotational motion for both ions individually. The diffusion coefficients of the cations are in the order of 6 × 10-11 m2 s-1 at room temperature and about 50 per cent larger than those of the anions. The diffusion coefficients of cations and anions in both PILs were compared with those we derived from applying an universal dispersion power law and those known from pulsed field gradient (PFG) NMR studies. Considering the Nernst-Einstein equation, molar conductivities were calculated from cationic and anionic diffusion coefficients and related to directly measured molar conductivities, allowing the determination of the degree of dissociation. The rotational correlation times τR ranging from 50 ps up to 2 ns as a function of temperature were compared with those obtained from high-field NMR quadrupolar relaxation time measurements addressing explicitly the rotation of the NH vector and giving insights into the acidic proton mobility. The Stokes-Einstein and Stokes-Einstein-Debye relations were applied to relate the diffusion coefficients and rotational correlation times to the macroscopic bulk viscosity. The results were also discussed with respect to the archetypical PIL ethylammonium nitrate.

Anions as Dynamic Probes for Ionic Liquid Mixtures

Ionic liquid (IL) mixtures have been proposed as a viable alternative to rationally fine-tune the physicochemical properties of ILs for a variety of applications. The understanding of the effects of mixing ILs on the properties of the mixtures is however only in the very early stages. Two series of ionic liquid mixtures, based on the 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium and 1-dodecyl-3-methylimidazolium cations, and having a common anion (tetrafluoroborate or bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide), have been prepared and deeply characterized via multiple NMR techniques. Diffusion and relaxation methods combined with 2D ion-ion correlation (nuclear Overhauser enhancement) experiments have been used for a better understanding of the interplay between dynamics and structure of IL mixtures. A crucial role of the anion in driving the mixture's behavior emerged, making them important "dynamic probes" for gaining information of the polar and nonpolar regions of ionic liquids and their mixtures.

Short-Range Order and Transport Properties in Mixtures of the Protic Ionic Liquid [C2HIm][TFSI] with Water or Imidazole

We investigate the effect of adding different molecular cosolvents, water or imidazole, to the protic ionic liquid 1-ethylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, i.e., [C₂HIm][TFSI]. We explore how the added cosolvent distributes within the ionic liquid by means of molecular dynamics simulations and X-ray scattering. We also analyze the degree of short-range heterogeneity in the resulting mixtures, finding that while imidazole easily mixes with the protic ionic liquid, water tends to form small clusters in its own water-rich domains. These differences are rationalized by invoking the nature of intermolecular interactions. In aqueous mixtures water-water hydrogen bonds are more likely to form than water-ion hydrogen bonds (water-TFSI bonds being particularly weak), while imidazole can interact with both cations and anions. Hence, the cation-anion association is negligibly influenced by the presence of water, whereas the addition of imidazole creates solvent-separated ion pairs and is thus able to also increase the ionicity. As a consequence of these structural and interactional features, transport properties like self-diffusion and ionic conductivity also show different composition dependencies. While the mobility of both ions and solvent is increased considerably by the addition of water, upon adding imidazole this property changes significantly only for molar fractions of imidazole above 0.6. At these molar fractions, which correspond to a base-excess composition, the imidazole/[C₂HIm][TFSI] mixture behaves as a glass-forming liquid with suppressed phase transitions, while homomixtures such as imidazole/[HIm][TFSI] can display a eutectic point.

A long-chain protic ionic liquid inside silica nanopores: enhanced proton mobility due to efficient self-assembly and decoupled proton transport

We report enhanced protonic and ionic dynamics in an imidazole/protic ionic liquid mixture confined within the nanopores of silica particles. The ionic liquid is 1-octylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide ([HC8Im][TFSI]), while the silica particles are microsized and characterized by internal well connected nanopores. We demonstrate that the addition of imidazole is crucial to promote a proton motion decoupled from molecular diffusion, which occurs due to the establishment of new N-HN hydrogen bonds and fast proton exchange events in the ionic domains, as evidenced by both infrared and 1H NMR spectroscopy. An additional reason for the decoupled motion of protons is the nanosegregated structure adopted by the liquid imidazole/[HC8Im][TFSI] mixture, with segregated polar and non-polar nano-domains, as clearly shown by WAXS data. This arrangement, promoted by the length of the octyl group and thus by significant chain-chain interactions, reduces the mobility of molecules (Dmol) more than that of protons (DH), which is manifested by DH/Dmol ratios greater than three. Once included into the nanopores of hydrophobic silica microparticles, the nanostructure of the liquid mixture is preserved with slightly larger ionic domains, but effects on the non-polar ones are unclear. This results in a further enhancement of proton motion with localised paths of conduction. These findings demonstrate significant progress in the design of proton conducting materials via tailor-made molecular structures as well as by smart exploitation of confinement effects. Compared to other imidazole-based proton conducting materials that are crystalline up to 90 °C or above, the gel materials that we propose are useful for applications at room temperature, and can thus find applications in e.g. intermediate temperature proton exchange fuel cells.

Changes in microstructure of two ammonium-based protic ionic liquids proved by in situ variable-temperature 1 H NMR spectroscopy: influence of anion

In this work, changes in microstructure of two protic ionic liquids (PILs), namely n-butylammonium acetate (N4Ac) and n-butylammonium nitrate (N4NO₃ ), are proved by in situ variable-temperature ¹ H NMR spectroscopy at the temperature range from 25 to 115 °C, and the influence of the nature of anion is discussed accordingly. The results demonstrate that ¹ H NMR chemical shifts of alkyl protons of both N4Ac and N4NO₃ are almost not changed with the increasing of temperature, due to the absence of hydrogen bond interaction between alkyl protons with anions. Whereas those of ⁺ N-H of cation decrease linearly with the temperature increasing, indicating that the hydrogen bond interaction between ⁺ N-H and anion weakens gradually. In addition, the strength of hydrogen bond interaction between ⁺ N-H and NO₃^- is stronger than that between ⁺ N-H and Ac^- , suggesting that anions have a significant influence on microstructure due to the acidity of a Brønsted acid. Consequently, the proton transfer from cation to anion is much easier in N4Ac compared to N4NO₃ . Further analyses of ¹ H NMR chemical shifts of ⁺ N-H in N4Ac at the temperature range from 100 to 115 °C suggest that the splitting of ⁺ N-H peak may be attributed to obvious evidence of the existence of the proton transfer from ⁺ N-H to Ac^- , which leads to dissociate the contact ion-pair in N4Ac to form the neutral ion-pair 'molecule'. The results will help us to extensively understand the behavior of proton transfer and offer us some valuable information for the design of PILs. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A review of NMR methods used in the study of the structure and dynamics of ionic liquids

Recently, NMR spectroscopy has been emerging out as a powerful tool to study the structure and dynamics of ionic liquids (ILs) and ILs-Li⁺ salt mixtures. This mini-review primarily focuses on the applications of various NMR spectroscopic techniques such as self-diffusion measurements, NMR relaxometry, two-dimensional NMR, and other novel NMR approaches to study the structure and dynamics of ILs and its mixtures with lithium salts. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

NMR spectroscopy in ionic liquds

Today, NMR spectroscopy is the most important analytical tool for synthetically working chemists. This review describes the development of NMR spectroscopic methods for use in ionic liquid media and the state-of-the art in terms of routine analytics as well as modern advanced techniques.

Understanding the hydrogen bonds in ionic liquids and their roles in properties and reactions

Ionic liquids (ILs) have many potential applications in the chemical industry. In order to understand ILs, their molecular details have been extensively investigated. Intuitively, electrostatic forces are solely important in ILs. However, experiments and calculations have provided strong evidence for the existence of H-bonds in ILs and their roles in the properties and applications of ILs. As a structure-directing force, H-bonds are responsible for ionic pairing, stacking and self-assembling. Their geometric structure, interaction energy and electronic configuration in the ion-pairs of imidazolium-based ILs and protic ionic liquids (PILs) show a great number of differences compared to conventional H-bonds. In particular, their cooperation with electrostatic, dispersion and π interactions embodies the physical nature of H-bonds in ILs, which anomalously influences their properties, leading to a decrease in their melting points and viscosities and thus fluidizing them. Using ILs as catalysts and solvents, many reactions can be activated by the presence of H-bonds, which reduce the reaction barriers and stabilize the transition states. In the dissolution of lignocellulosic biomass by ILs, H-bonds exhibit a most important role in disrupting the H-bonding network of cellulose and controlling microscopic ordering into domains. In this article, a critical review is presented regarding the structural features of H-bonds in ILs and PILs, the correlation between H-bonds and the properties of ILs, and the roles of H-bonds in typical reactions.

Hydrogen bonding in ionic liquids

Ionic liquids (IL) and hydrogen bonding (H-bonding) are two diverse fields for which there is a developing recognition of significant overlap. Doubly ionic H-bonds occur when a H-bond forms between a cation and anion, and are a key feature of ILs. Doubly ionic H-bonds represent a wide area of H-bonding which has yet to be fully recognised, characterised or explored. H-bonds in ILs (both protic and aprotic) are bifurcated and chelating, and unlike many molecular liquids a significant variety of distinct H-bonds are formed between different types and numbers of donor and acceptor sites within a given IL. Traditional more neutral H-bonds can also be formed in functionalised ILs, adding a further level of complexity. Ab initio computed parameters; association energies, partial charges, density descriptors as encompassed by the QTAIM methodology (ρBCP), qualitative molecular orbital theory and NBO analysis provide established and robust mechanisms for understanding and interpreting traditional neutral and ionic H-bonds. In this review the applicability and extension of these parameters to describe and quantify the doubly ionic H-bond has been explored. Estimating the H-bonding energy is difficult because at a fundamental level the H-bond and ionic interaction are coupled. The NBO and QTAIM methodologies, unlike the total energy, are local descriptors and therefore can be used to directly compare neutral, ionic and doubly ionic H-bonds. The charged nature of the ions influences the ionic characteristics of the H-bond and vice versa, in addition the close association of the ions leads to enhanced orbital overlap and covalent contributions. The charge on the ions raises the energy of the Ylp and lowers the energy of the X-H σ* NBOs resulting in greater charge transfer, strengthening the H-bond. Using this range of parameters and comparing doubly ionic H-bonds to more traditional neutral and ionic H-bonds it is clear that doubly ionic H-bonds cover the full range of weak through to very strong H-bonds.

Ionicity of acetate-based protic ionic liquids: evidence for both liquid and gaseous phases

Low ionicity at high temperatures has been detected for a series of acetate-based protic ionic liquids (PILs), which form neutral components as a result of back proton transfer through an equilibrium shift.

Synthesis and applications of ionic liquids derived from natural sugars

Aiming to develop environmentally compatible chemical syntheses, the replacement of traditional organic solvents with ionic liquids (ILs) has attracted considerable attention. ILs are special molten salts with melting points below 100 degrees C that are typically constituted of organic cations (imidazolium, pyridinium, sulfonium, phosphonium, etc.) and inorganic anions. Due to their ionic nature, they are endowed with high chemical and thermal stability, good solvent properties, and non-measurable vapor pressure. Although the recovery of unaltered ILs and recycling partly compensate their rather high cost, it is important to develop new synthetic approaches to less expensive and environmentally sustainable ILs based on renewable raw materials. In fact, most of these alternative solvents are still prepared starting from fossil feedstocks. Until now, only a limited number of ILs have been prepared from renewable sources. Surprisingly, the most available and inexpensive raw material, i.e., carbohydrates, has been hardly exploited in the synthesis of ILs. In 2003 imidazolium-based ILs were prepared from o-fructose and used as solvents in Mizoroki-Heck and Diels-Alder reactions. Later on, the first chiral ILs derived from sugars were prepared from methyl D-glucopyranoside. In the same year, a family of new chiral ILs, obtained from commercial isosorbide (dianhydro-D-glucitol), was described. A closely related approach was followed by other researchers to synthesize mono- and bis-ammonium ILs from isomannide (dianhydro-D-mannitol). Finally, a few ILs bearing a pentofuranose unit as the chiral moiety were prepared using sugar phosphates as glycosyl donors and 1-methylimidazole as the acceptor.

Influence of water on diffusion in imidazolium-based ionic liquids: a pulsed field gradient NMR study

In this work, we applied a novel pulsed field gradient (PFG) NMR option, which combines advantages of high-field (17.6 T) NMR and high magnetic field gradients (up to 30 T/m), to study diffusion of anions, cations and water in two 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium-based ionic liquids. Application of high field allows for an easy recording of an NMR signal from small amounts of water added to the ionic liquids. Using high gradients is advantageous because under conditions of such gradients any susceptibility-induced inhomogeneities in the local magnetic field are expected to be negligibly small in comparison with the applied gradients. PFG NMR studies have been performed in a broad range of temperatures and for different diffusion times. The effect of water addition on the diffusion behavior of the anions and cations is discussed in the context of the presence of polar and nonpolar domains in the ionic liquids. A partial screening of the electrostatic interaction between the cations and anions in the polar domains by water is believed to be responsible for the following changes in the diffusion behavior, which were observed experimentally: (i) increase in the ion diffusivities with increasing water concentration, and (ii) decrease in the difference between the diffusion coefficient of the cation and that of the anion as water concentration increases.