Hydration Energies of Zinc(II): Threshold Collision-Induced Dissociation Experiments and Theoretical Studies

Recent advances in zinc-ion dehydration strategies for optimized Zn-metal batteries

Aqueous Zn-metal batteries have attracted increasing interest for large-scale energy storage owing to their outstanding merits in terms of safety, cost and production. However, they constantly suffer from inadequate energy density and poor cycling stability due to the presence of zinc ions in the fully hydrated solvation state. Thus, designing the dehydrated solvation structure of zinc ions can effectively address the current drawbacks of aqueous Zn-metal batteries. In this case, considering the lack of studies focused on strategies for the dehydration of zinc ions, herein, we present a systematic and comprehensive review to deepen the understanding of zinc-ion solvation regulation. Two fundamental design principles of component regulation and pre-desolvation are summarized in terms of solvation environment formation and interfacial desolvation behavior. Subsequently, specific strategy based distinct principles are carefully discussed, including preparation methods, working mechanisms, analysis approaches and performance improvements. Finally, we present a general summary of the issues addressed using zinc-ion dehydration strategies, and four critical aspects to promote zinc-ion solvation regulation are presented as an outlook, involving updating (de)solvation theories, revealing interfacial evolution, enhancing analysis techniques and developing functional materials. We believe that this review will not only stimulate more creativity in optimizing aqueous electrolytes but also provide valuable insights into designing other battery systems.

Insights into the coordination chemistry of antineoplastic doxorubicin with 3d-transition metal ions Zn2+, Cu2+, and VO2+: a study using well-calibrated thermodynamic cycles and chemical interaction quantum chemistry models

We present a computational strategy based on thermodynamic cycles to predict and describe the chemical equilibrium between the 3d-transition metal ions Zn²⁺, Cu²⁺, and VO²⁺ and the widely used antineoplastic drug doxorubicin. Our method involves benchmarking a theoretical protocol to compute gas-phase quantities using DLPNO Coupled-Cluster calculations as reference, followed by estimating solvation contributions to the reaction Gibbs free energies using both explicit partial (micro)solvation steps for charged solutes and neutral coordination complexes, as well as a continuum solvation procedure for all solutes involved in the complexation process. We rationalized the stability of these doxorubicin-metal complexes by inspecting quantities obtained from the topology of their electron densities, particularly the bond critical points and non-covalent interaction index. Our approach allowed us to identify representative species in solution phase, infer the most likely complexation process for each case, and identify key intramolecular interactions involved in the stability of these compounds. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study reporting thermodynamic constants for the complexation of doxorubicin with transition metal ions. Unlike other methods, our procedure is computationally affordable for medium-sized systems and provides valuable insights even with limited experimental data. Furthermore, it can be extended to describe the complexation process between 3d-transition metal ions and other bioactive ligands.

Surface or Internal Hydration - Does It Really Matter?

The precise location of an ion or electron, whether it is internally solvated or residing on the surface of a water cluster, remains an intriguing question. Subtle differences in the hydrogen bonding network may lead to a preference for one or the other. Here we discuss spectroscopic probes of the structure of gas-phase hydrated ions in combination with quantum chemistry, as well as H/D exchange as a means of structure elucidation. With the help of nanocalorimetry, we look for thermochemical signatures of surface vs internal solvation. Examples of strongly size-dependent reactivity are reviewed which illustrate the influence of surface vs internal solvation on unimolecular rearrangements of the cluster, as well as on the rate and product distribution of ion-molecule reactions.

Periodic trends in the hydration energies and critical sizes of alkaline earth and transition metal dication water complexes

This review encompasses guided ion beam tandem mass spectrometry studies of hydrated metal dication complexes. Metals include the Group 2 alkaline earths (Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba), late first-row transition metals (Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, and Zn), along with Cd. In all cases, threshold collision-induced dissociation experiments are used to quantitatively determine the sequential hydration energies for M2+ (H2 O)x complexes ranging in size from one to 11 water molecules. Periodic trends in these bond dissociation energies are examined and discussed. Values are compared to other experimental results when available. In addition to dissociation by simple water ligand loss, complexes at a select size (which differs from metal to metal) are also observed to undergo charge separation to yield a hydrated metal hydroxide cation and a hydrated proton. This leads to the concept of a critical size, xcrit , and the periodic trends in this value are also discussed.

Photoinduced Charge Transfer in the Zn-Methanol Cation Studied with Selected-Ion Photofragment Imaging

The Zn+(methanol) ion molecule complex produced by laser vaporization is studied with photofragment imaging at 280 and 266 nm. Photodissociation produces the methanol cation CH3OH+ via excitation of a charge-transfer excited state. Surprisingly, excitation of bound excited states produces the same fragment via a curve crossing prior to separation of products. Significant kinetic energy release is detected at both wavelengths with isotropic angular distributions. Similar experiments are conducted on the perdeuterated methanol complex. The Zn+ cation is a minor product channel that also exhibits significant kinetic energy release. An energetic cycle using the ionization potentials of zinc and methanol together with the kinetic energy release produces an upper limit on the Zn+-methanol bond energy of 33.7 {plus minus} 4.2 kcal/mol (1.46 {plus minus} 0.18 eV).

Infrared spectroscopy of RG-Co+(H2O) complexes (RG = Ar, Ne, He): The role of rare gas "tag" atoms

RG_n-Co⁺(H₂O) cation complexes (RG = Ar, Ne, He) are generated in a supersonic expansion by pulsed laser vaporization. Complexes are mass-selected using a time-of-flight spectrometer and studied with infrared laser photodissociation spectroscopy, measuring the respective mass channels corresponding to the elimination of the rare gas "tag" atom. Spectral patterns and theory indicate that the structures of the ions with a single rare gas atom have this bound to the cobalt cation opposite the water moiety in a near-C_2v arrangement. The O-H stretch vibrations of the complex are shifted compared to those of water because of the metal cation charge-transfer interaction; these frequencies also vary systematically with the rare gas atom attached. The efficiencies of photodissociation also vary with the rare gas atoms because of their widely different binding energies to the cobalt cation. The spectrum of the argon complex could only be measured when at least three argon atoms were attached. In the case of the helium complex, the low binding energy allows the spectra to be measured for the low-frequency H-O-H scissors bending mode and for the O-D stretches of the deuterated analog. The partially resolved rotational structure for the antisymmetric O-H and O-D stretches reveals the temperature of these complexes (6 K) and establishes the electronic ground state. The helium complex has the same ³B₁ ground state as the tag-free complex studied previously by Metz and co-workers ["Dissociation energy and electronic and vibrational spectroscopy of Co⁺(H₂O) and its isotopomers," J. Phys. Chem. A 117, 1254 (2013)], but the A rotational constant is contaminated by vibrational averaging from the bending motion of the helium.

Chemical Equilibrium of Zinc Acetate Complexes in Ethanol Solution. A Theoretical Description through Thermodynamic Cycles

The Gibbs free energy of complexation between the Zn(II) species and acetate ligands, forming the [Zn(OAc)_n]^2-n complexes with n = 1, 2 in an ethanol solution, was assessed by two different theoretical protocols based on thermodynamic cycles. In both approaches, the solution phase Gibbs free energy of each reaction is computed by summing up contributions from gas phase thermochemistry calculations to solvation Gibbs free energies obtained in a hybrid fashion, i.e., each (neutral or electrically charged) solute was first solvated by explicit solvent molecules in order to capture relevant (micro) solute-solvent and/or solvent-solvent interactions and then, a continuum model calculation is performed in order to get the corresponding bulky solute-solvent contributions. For our first thermodynamic protocol, here denominated as variant 1, a set of x independent solvent molecules are used to screen each of the involved solutes, while the variant 2 strategy uses the fact that a set of solvent molecules may exist as aggregates (or molecular clusters) in the solvent macroscopic media, before the solvation process of solutes. Our selected quantum theoretical protocol was the M05-2X/6-31+G(d)/SMD level. We made a systematic exploration about the influence of several sources of errors, such as the solvent conformation, the number of solvent molecules used to screen each of the involved solutes, the coordination geometry of the metallic center before and after the complexation process, and the pertinence of using molecular geometries optimized in gas phase and in ethanol solution, for the computation of the Gibbs free energy variation regarding the two chemical reactions under study. We set an accuracy threshold equal or less than 4.0 kcal·mol^-1, with respect to the corresponding experimental records. The robustness of our thermodynamic strategies was then tested by computing the gas phase free energy contributions to the (solution phase) reaction free energies here assessed, using different density functional approximations, namely the M05-2X, BH&HLYP, PBE0, ωb97X-D and M06-2X functionals in conjunction with the larger 6-311+G(d,p) basis set.

Microsolvation in V+(H2O)n Clusters Studied with Selected-Ion Infrared Spectroscopy

Gas-phase ion-molecule clusters of the form V⁺(H₂O)_n (n = 1-30) are produced by laser vaporization in a supersonic expansion. These ions are analyzed and mass-selected with a time-of-flight mass spectrometer and investigated with infrared laser photodissociation spectroscopy. The small clusters (n ≤ 7) are studied with argon tagging, while the larger clusters are studied via the elimination of water molecules. The vibrational spectra for the small clusters include only free O-H stretching vibrations, while larger clusters exhibit redshifted hydrogen bonding vibrations. The spectral patterns reveal that the coordination around V⁺ ions is completed with four water molecules. A symmetric square-planar structure forms for the n = 4 ion, and this becomes the core ion in larger structures. Clusters up to n = 8 have mostly two-dimensional structures, but hydrogen bonding networks evolve to three-dimensional structures in larger clusters. The free O-H vibration of acceptor-acceptor-donor (AAD)-coordinated surface molecules converges to a frequency near that of bulk water by the cluster size of n = 30. However, the splitting of this vibration for AAD- versus AD-coordinated molecules is still different compared to other singly charged or doubly charged cation-water clusters. This indicates that cation identity and charge-site location in the cluster can produce discernable spectral differences for clusters in this size range.

Binding energies of hydrated cobalt(ii) by collision-induced dissociation and theoretical studies: evidence for a new critical size

The experimental sequential bond energies for loss of water from Co²⁺(H₂O)_x complexes, x = 5-11, are determined by threshold collision-induced dissociation (TCID) using a guided ion beam tandem mass spectrometer with a thermal electrospray ionization source. Kinetic energy dependent TCID cross sections are analyzed to yield 0 K thresholds for sequential loss of neutral water molecules. The thresholds are converted from 0 to 298 K values to give hydration enthalpies and free energies. Theoretical geometry optimizations and single point energy calculations at several levels of theory are performed for the reactant and product ion complexes. Theoretical bond energies for ground structures are used for direct comparison with experimental values to obtain structural information on these complexes. In addition, the dissociative charge separation process, Co²⁺(H₂O)_x → CoOH⁺(H₂O)_m + H⁺(H₂O)_x-m-1, is observed at x = 4, 6, and 7 in competition with primary water loss products. Energies for the charge separation rate-limiting transition states are calculated and compared to experimental threshold measurements. Results suggest that the critical size for which charge separation is energetically favored over water loss is x_crit = 6, in contrast to lower values in previous literature reports.

Potential energy surface for the reaction Sm+ + CO2 → SmO+ + CO: guided ion beam and theoretical studies

The potential energy surface (PES) for the oxidation of samarium cations by carbon dioxide is explored both experimentally and theoretically. Using guided ion beam tandem mass spectrometry, several reactions are examined as a function of kinetic energy. These include the title reaction as well as its reverse along with the collision-induced dissociation of Sm⁺(CO₂) and OSm⁺(CO) with Xe. Analysis of the kinetic energy dependent cross sections yields barriers for the forward and reverse oxidation reaction of 1.77 ± 0.11 and 2.04 ± 0.13 eV, respectively, and Sm⁺-OCO and OSm⁺-CO bond dissociation energies (BDEs) of 0.42 ± 0.03 and 0.97 ± 0.07 eV, respectively. BDEs for Sm⁺(CO₂)_x for x = 2 and 3 are also determined as 0.40 ± 0.13 and 0.48 ± 0.12 eV, respectively. The PESs for the title reaction along the sextet and octet spin surfaces are also examined theoretically at the MP2 and CCSD(T) levels using both effective core potential and all-electron basis sets. Reasonable agreement between theory and experiment is obtained for the experimentally characterized intermediates, although all-electron basis sets and spin-orbit effects are needed for quantitative agreement. The observed barrier for oxidation is shown to likely correspond to the energy of the crossing between surfaces corresponding to the ground state electronic configuration of Sm⁺ (⁸F,4f⁶6s¹) and an excited surface having two electrons in the valence space (excluding 4f), which are needed to form the strong SmO⁺ bond.

Sequential water molecule binding enthalpies for aqueous nanodrops containing a mono-, di- or trivalent ion and between 20 and 500 water molecules

Sequential water molecule binding enthalpies, ΔH_n,n-1, are important for a detailed understanding of competitive interactions between ions, water and solute molecules, and how these interactions affect physical properties of ion-containing nanodrops that are important in aerosol chemistry. Water molecule binding enthalpies have been measured for small clusters of many different ions, but these values for ion-containing nanodrops containing more than 20 water molecules are scarce. Here, ΔH_n,n-1 values are deduced from high-precision ultraviolet photodissociation (UVPD) measurements as a function of ion identity, charge state and cluster size between 20-500 water molecules and for ions with +1, +2 and +3 charges. The ΔH_n,n-1 values are obtained from the number of water molecules lost upon photoexcitation at a known wavelength, and modeling of the release of energy into the translational, rotational and vibrational motions of the products. The ΔH_n,n-1 values range from 36.82 to 50.21 kJ mol^-1. For clusters containing more than ∼250 water molecules, the binding enthalpies are between the bulk heat of vaporization (44.8 kJ mol^-1) and the sublimation enthalpy of bulk ice (51.0 kJ mol^-1). These values depend on ion charge state for clusters with fewer than 150 water molecules, but there is a negligible dependence at larger size. There is a minimum in the ΔH_n,n-1 values that depends on the cluster size and ion charge state, which can be attributed to the competing effects of ion solvation and surface energy. The experimental ΔH_n,n-1 values can be fit to the Thomson liquid drop model (TLDM) using bulk ice parameters. By optimizing the surface tension and temperature change of the logarithmic partial pressure for the TLDM, the experimental sequential water molecule binding enthalpies can be fit with an accuracy of ±3.3 kJ mol^-1 over the entire range of cluster sizes.

Experimental measurements of water molecule binding energies for the second and third solvation shells of [Ca(H2O) n ]2+ complexes

Further understanding of the biological role of the Ca²⁺ ion in an aqueous environment requires quantitative measurements of both the short- and long-range interactions experienced by the ion in an aqueous medium. Here, we present experimental measurements of binding energies for water molecules occupying the second and, quite possibly, the third solvation shell surrounding a central Ca²⁺ ion in [Ca(H₂O) _n ]²⁺ complexes. Results for these large, previously inaccessible, complexes have come from the application of finite heat bath theory to kinetic energy measurements following unimolecular decay. Even at n = 20, the results show water molecules to be more strongly bound to Ca²⁺ than would be expected just from the presence of an extended network of hydrogen bonds. For n > 10, there is very good agreement between the experimental binding energies and recently published density functional theory calculations. Comparisons are made with similar data recorded for [Ca(NH₃) _n ]²⁺ and [Ca(CH₃OH) _n ]²⁺ complexes.

Experimental measurements of water molecule binding energies for the second and third solvation shells of [Ca(H2O) n ]2+ complexes

Further understanding of the biological role of the Ca²⁺ ion in an aqueous environment requires quantitative measurements of both the short- and long-range interactions experienced by the ion in an aqueous medium. Here, we present experimental measurements of binding energies for water molecules occupying the second and, quite possibly, the third solvation shell surrounding a central Ca²⁺ ion in [Ca(H₂O) _n ]²⁺ complexes. Results for these large, previously inaccessible, complexes have come from the application of finite heat bath theory to kinetic energy measurements following unimolecular decay. Even at n = 20, the results show water molecules to be more strongly bound to Ca²⁺ than would be expected just from the presence of an extended network of hydrogen bonds. For n > 10, there is very good agreement between the experimental binding energies and recently published density functional theory calculations. Comparisons are made with similar data recorded for [Ca(NH₃) _n ]²⁺ and [Ca(CH₃OH) _n ]²⁺ complexes.

Asymmetric hydration structure around calcium ion restricted in micropores fabricated in activated carbons

The adsorbed phase and hydration structure of an aqueous solution of Ca(NO3)2 restricted in micropores fabricated in activated carbons (ACs) having different average pore widths (0.63 and 1.1 nm) were investigated with the analysis of adsorption isotherms and x-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) spectra on Ca K-edge. The adsorbed density of Ca(2+) per unit micropore volume in the narrower pore was higher than in the wider pore, while the adsorbed amount per unit mass of carbon with the narrower pore was half of the amount of ACs with the larger pore. On the other hand, variations in the bands assigned to double-electron (KM I) and 1s  →  3d excitations in XAFS spectra demonstrate the formation of a distorted hydration cluster around Ca(2+) in the micropore, although the structural parameters of hydrated Ca(2+) in the micropores were almost consistent with the bulk aqueous solution, as revealed by the analysis of extended XAFS (EXAFS) spectra. In contrast to the hydration structure of monovalent ions such as Rb(+), which generally presents a dehydrated structure in smaller than 1 nm micropores in ACs, the present study clearly explains that the non-spherically-symmetric structure of hydrated Ca(2+) restricted in carbon micropores whose sizes are around 1 nm is experimentally revealed where any dehydration phenomena from the first hydration shell around Ca(2+) could not be observed.

Cationic Noncovalent Interactions: Energetics and Periodic Trends

In this review, noncovalent interactions of ions with neutral molecules are discussed. After defining the scope of the article, which excludes anionic and most protonated systems, methods associated with measuring thermodynamic information for such systems are briefly recounted. An extensive set of tables detailing available thermodynamic information for the noncovalent interactions of metal cations with a host of ligands is provided. Ligands include small molecules (H2, NH3, CO, CS, H2O, CH3CN, and others), organic ligands (O- and N-donors, crown ethers and related molecules, MALDI matrix molecules), π-ligands (alkenes, alkynes, benzene, and substituted benzenes), miscellaneous inorganic ligands, and biological systems (amino acids, peptides, sugars, nucleobases, nucleosides, and nucleotides). Hydration of metalated biological systems is also included along with selected proton-based systems: 18-crown-6 polyether with protonated peptides and base-pairing energies of nucleobases. In all cases, the literature thermochemistry is evaluated and, in many cases, reanchored or adjusted to 0 K bond dissociation energies. Trends in these values are discussed and related to a variety of simple molecular concepts.

Hydrated copper ion chemistry: guided ion beam and computational investigation of Cu2+(H2O)n (n = 7-10) complexes

Cross sections for the threshold collision-induced dissociation of Cu(2+)(H(2)O)(n), where n = 8 - 10, are measured using a guided ion beam tandem mass spectrometer. The primary dissociation pathway is found to be loss of a single water molecule followed by the sequential loss of additional water molecules until n = 8, at which point charge separation to form CuOH(+)(H(2)O)(4) (+) H(+)(H(2)O)(3) is observed to occur at a slightly lower energy than loss of a water molecule. Competition from charge separation prohibits the formation of appreciable amounts of the n = 7 or smaller complexes as reactants in the source. These findings indicate that Cu(2+) has a critical size of 8. Analysis of the data using statistical modeling techniques that account for energy distributions and lifetime effects yields primary and sequential bond dissociation energies (BDEs) for loss of one and two water molecules from n = 8 - 10 complexes as well as the barrier for charge separation from n = 8. More speculative analysis extends the thermochemistry obtained down to n = 5 and 6. Theoretical BDEs are determined from quantum chemical calculations using structures optimized at the B3LYP/6 311(+)G(d,p) level along with the lowest-energy isomers suggested by single point energies at the MP2(full), M06, B3LYP, and B3P86 levels of theory using a 6- 311(+)G(2d,2p) basis set. BDEs at 0K are converted to 298 K thermodynamic values using a rigid rotor/harmonic oscillator approximation. Experimental and theoretical entropies of activation suggest that a third solvent shell forms at n = 9, in accord with previous findings. The present work represents the first experimentally determined hydration enthalpies for the Cu(2+)(H(2)O)n system.

Coordination structure and charge transfer in microsolvated transition metal hydroxide clusters [MOH]+(H2O)1–4

Infrared vibrational predissociation spectra of transition metal hydroxide clusters, [MOH]⁺(H₂O)_1–4·D₂ with M = Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, and Zn, are presented and analyzed, showing solvent driven changes in coordination and charge transfer.

Influence of the d orbital occupation on the structures and sequential binding energies of pyridine to the late first-row divalent transition metal cations: a DFT study

The ground-state structures and sequential binding energies of the late first-row divalent transition metal cations to pyridine (Pyr) are determined using density functional theory (DFT) methods. Five late first-row transition metal cations in their +2 oxidation states are examined including: Fe(2+), Co(2+), Ni(2+), Cu(2+), and Zn(2+). Calculations at B3LYP, BHandHLYP, and M06 levels of theory using 6-31G* and 6-311+G(2d,2p) basis sets are employed to determine the structures and theoretical estimates for the sequential binding energies of the M(2+)(Pyr)x complexes, where x = 1-6, respectively. Structures of the Ca(2+)(Pyr)x complexes are compared to those for the M(2+)(Pyr)x complexes of Fe(2+), Co(2+), Ni(2+), Cu(2+), and Zn(2+) to further assess the effects of the d-orbital occupation on the preferred binding geometries. The B3LYP, BHandHLYP, and M06 levels of theory yield very similar geometries for the analogous M(2+)(Pyr)x complexes. The overall trends in the sequential BDEs for all five metal cations at all three levels of theory examined are highly parallel, and are determined by a balance of the effects of the valence electronic configuration and hybridization of the metal cation, but are also influenced by repulsive ligand-ligand interactions. Present results for the M(2+)(Pyr)x complexes are compared to the analogous complexes of the late first-row monovalent transition metal cations, Co(+), Ni(+), Cu(+), and Zn(+) previously investigated to assess the effect of the charge/oxidation state on the structures and sequential binding energies. Trends in the sequential binding energies of the M(2+)(Pyr)x complexes are also compared to the analogous M(2+)(water)x, M(2+)(imidazole)x, M(2+)(2,2'-bipyridine)x, and M(2+)(1,10-phenanthroline)x complexes.

Infrared spectroscopy of solvation in small Zn+ (H2O)n complexes

Singly charged zinc-water cations are produced in a pulsed supersonic expansion source using laser vaporization. Zn(+)(H2O)n (n = 1-4) complexes are mass selected and studied with infrared laser photodissociation spectroscopy, employing the method of argon tagging. Density functional theory (DFT) computations are used to obtain the structures and vibrational frequencies of these complexes and their isomers. Spectra in the O-H stretching region show sharp bands corresponding to the symmetric and asymmetric stretches, whose frequencies are lower than those in the isolated water molecule. Zn(+)(H2O)nAr complexes with n = 1-3 have O-H stretches only in the higher frequency region, indicating direct coordination to the metal. The Zn(+)(H2O)2-4Ar complexes have multiple bands here, indicating the presence of multiple low energy isomers differing in the attachment position of argon. The Zn(+)(H2O)4Ar cluster uniquely exhibits a broad band in the hydrogen bonded stretch region, indicating the presence of a second sphere water molecule. The coordination of the Zn(+)(H2O)n complexes is therefore completed with three water molecules.

Thermochemistry of non-covalent ion-molecule interactions

The thermochemistry of non-covalent ion-molecule complexes has been examined by measuring quantitative bond dissociation energies using threshold collision-induced dissociation in guided ion beam tandem mass spectrometers (GIBMS). The methods used are briefly reviewed and several examples of the types of information and insight that can be obtained from such thermodynamic information are discussed. The hydration of metal cations, both singly and doubly charged, is reviewed and the trends elucidated, mainly on the basis of electrostatic contributions. The binding of alkali metal cations to amino acids has been examined for a range of systems, with both the overall polarizability of the amino acid and the local dipole moment of heteroatomic side-chains shown to be important contributors. The gas-phase interactions of the 12-crown-4 (12C4) polyether with alkali metal cations, classic molecular recognition systems in solution, have been newly compared to previous GIBMS work. These results validate the previous hypothesis that excited conformers were present for Rb(+)(12C4) and Cs(+)(12C4) and offer clues as to how and why they are formed.

Highly compressed nanosolution restricted in cylindrical carbon nanospaces

We shed light on the specific hydration structure around a zinc ion of nanosolution restricted in a cylindrical micropore of single-wall carbon nanotube (SWNT) by comparison with the structure restricted in a cylindrical mesopore of multi-wall carbon nanotube (MWNT) and that of bulk aqueous solution. The average micropore width of open-pore SWNT was 0.87 nm which is equivalent to the size of a hydrated zinc ion having 6-hydrated water molecules. We could impregnate the zinc ions into the micropore of SWNT with negligible amounts of ion-exchanged species on surface functional groups by the appropriate oxidation followed by heat treatment under an inert condition. The results of X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) spectra confirmed that the proportion of dissolved species in nanospaces against the total adsorbed amounts of zinc ions on the open-pore SWNT and MWNT were 44 and 61%, respectively, indicating the formation of a dehydrated structure in narrower nanospaces. The structure parameters obtained by the analysis of XAFS spectra also indicate that the dehydrated and highly compressed hydration structure can be stably formed inside the cylindrical micropore of SWNT where the structure is different from that inside the slit-shaped micropore whose pore width is less than 1 nm. Such a unique structure needs not only a narrow micropore geometry which is equivalent to the size of a hydrated ion but also the cylindrical nature of the pore.

The power of accurate energetics (or thermochemistry: what is it good for?)

The utility of measuring the energetics of ion-molecule reactions is discussed. After distinguishing between the terms of thermodynamics (macroscopic, equilibrium quantities) and energetics (microscopic and kinetically relevant quantities), the potential energy surfaces for ion-molecule reactions are reviewed and their implications discussed. Equations describing the kinetic energy dependence of ion-molecule reactions are introduced and the effects of entropy on reaction rates and branching ratios are discussed. Several case histories allow an exploration of the utility of accurate thermochemical information and probe how accurate such energetic information must be to be predictive. These case studies include decomposition of hydrated metal dications, the reaction of FeO(+) with H(2), and fragmentation of a small protonated peptide (GG). These illustrate a range of interesting systems for which accurate energetic information has been influential in understanding the observed reactivity. Comparisons with theory demonstrate that experimental information is still required for truly predictive capability.

Extensive computational study on coordination of transition metal cations and water molecules to glutamic acid

On the basis of the conformations of glutamic acid (Glu) and analysis of possible metal cation coordination and hydration modes, conformations of Glu metalated with transition metal cations (TMCs), Cu(+/2+), Zn(+/2+), and Fe(+/2+/3+) and hydrations of Glu-Cu(+/2+) and Glu-Zn(+/2+) complexes by up to three water molecules are determined by extensive computational searches. The BHandHLYP functional is chosen as the main computational method as its overall performance for treating the spin multiplicity of TMCs is similar to that of CCSD(T) and better than that of MP2 and B3LYP. All mono- and divalent TMCs prefer tridentate coordination to canonical Glu, while Fe(3+) favors a bidentate coordination to zwitterionic Glu. The ground state of Glu-Fe(+) is found to be a spin sextet. Metal ion affinities of Glu for the TMCs are determined, and an excellent agreement with the experiment for Cu(+) may be obtained if the entropic effect is properly accounted for. Effects of hydration on the stabilities of different Glu-Cu(+/2+)/Zn(+/2+) structures are discussed, and the hydration energies for up to three water molecules are obtained. For the global minimum to take the zwitterionic form, Glu-Zn(+) requires only monohydration, Glu-Zn(2+) needs to be trihydrated, while Glu-Cu(+/2) should be hydrated with four or more water molecules.

Invited review article: laser vaporization cluster sources

The laser vaporization cluster source has been used for the production of gas phase atomic clusters and metal-molecular complexes for 30 years. Numerous experiments in the chemistry and physics of clusters have employed this source. Its operation is simple in principle, but there are many subtle design features that influence the number and size of clusters produced, as well as their composition, charge state, and temperature. This article examines all aspects of the design of these cluster sources, discussing the relevant chemistry, physics, and mechanical aspects of experimental configurations employed by different labs. The principles detailed here provide a framework for the design and implementation of this source for new applications.

Coordination numbers of hydrated divalent transition metal ions investigated with IRPD spectroscopy

Hydration of the divalent transition metal ions, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, and Zn, with 5-8 water molecules attached was investigated using infrared photodissociation spectroscopy and photodissociation kinetics. At 215 K, spectral intensities in both the bonded-OH and free-OH stretch regions indicate that the average coordination number (CN) of Mn(2+), Fe(2+), Co(2+), and Ni(2+) is ~6, and these CN values are greater than those of Cu(2+) and Zn(2+). Ni has the highest CN, with no evidence for any population of structures with a water molecule in a second solvation shell for the hexa-hydrate at temperatures up to 331 K. Mn(2+), Fe(2+), and Co(2+) have similar CN at low temperature, but spectra of Mn(2+)(H(2)O)(6) indicate a second population of structures with a water molecule in a second solvent shell, i.e., a CN < 6, that increases in abundance at higher temperature (305 K). The propensity for these ions to undergo charge separation reactions at small cluster size roughly correlates with the ordering of the hydrolysis constants of these ions in aqueous solution and is consistent with the ordering of average CN values established from the infrared spectra of these ions.

Ions in size-selected aqueous nanodrops: sequential water molecule binding energies and effects of water on ion fluorescence

The effects of water on ion fluorescence were investigated, and average sequential water molecule binding energies to hydrated ions, M(z)(H(2)O)(n), at large cluster size were measured using ion nanocalorimetry. Upon 248-nm excitation, nanodrops with ~25 or more water molecules that contain either rhodamine 590(+), rhodamine 640(+), or Ce(3+) emit a photon with average energies of approximately 548, 590, and 348 nm, respectively. These values are very close to the emission maxima of the corresponding ions in solution, indicating that the photophysical properties of these ions in the nanodrops approach those of the fully hydrated ions at relatively small cluster size. As occurs in solution, these ions in nanodrops with 8 or more water molecules fluoresce with a quantum yield of ~1. Ce(3+) containing nanodrops that also contain OH(-) fluoresce, whereas those with NO(3)(-) do not. This indirect fluorescence detection method has the advantages of high sensitivity, and both the size of the nanodrops as well as their constituents can be carefully controlled. For ions that do not fluoresce in solution, such as protonated tryptophan, full internal conversion of the absorbed 248-nm photon occurs, and the average sequential water molecule binding energies to the hydrated ions can be accurately obtained at large cluster sizes. The average sequential water molecule binding energies for TrpH(+)(H(2)O)(n) and a doubly protonated tripeptide, [KYK + 2H](2+)(H(2)O)(n), approach asymptotic values of ~9.3 (n ≥ 11) and ~10.0 kcal/mol (n ≥ 25), respectively, consistent with a liquidlike structure of water in these nanodrops.