Conformational Structural Changes of Bacteriorhodopsin Adsorbed onto Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes

Hematological Effects of Gold Nanorods on Erythrocytes: Hemolysis and Hemoglobin Conformational and Functional Changes

Gold nanorods (GNRs) are a unique class of metal nanostructures that have attractive potentials in biomedical applications, and the concern on their biological safety is concomitantly increasing. Hemocompatibility is extremely important as their contact with blood circulation is unavoidable during in vivo delivery. Herein, two kinds of GNRs coated with hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide (C-GNRs) or poly(sodium-p-styrenesulfonate) are used to test their potential toxicological effects in blood. C-GNRs with positive surface charges efficiently induce hemolysis when encountering erythrocytes. Cellular internalization of C-GNRs is found, and they subsequently bind with hemoglobin, forming bioconjugates. The interaction between hemoglobin and C-GNR (stoichiometry 32.7:1) is regulated by electrostatic forces. Chromophores like tryptophan (Trp) are found to interact with C-GNRs, causing enhancement in fluorescence intensity. The conformation of protein is partially altered, evidenced by decrease in α-helical, increase in β-sheet and random coil of hemoglobin. Although C-GNRs do not essentially decrease oxygen binding capacity of hemoglobin, they hamper oxygen release from the protein. Heme, the oxygen binding unit, releases from hemoglobin upon C-GNR treatment, which could contribute to C-GNR-induced hemolysis. This study demonstrates the hematological effects of GNRs, revealing their potential risk in biomedical applications.

Double Biocatalysis Signal Amplification Glucose Biosensor Based on Porous Graphene

Controllable preparation of nanopores to promote the performance of electrochemical biosensing interfaces has become one of the researching frontiers in biosensing. A double biocatalysis signal amplification of glucose biosensor for the study of electrochemical behaviors of glucose oxidase (GOx) was proposed by using horseradish peroxidase biosynthesized porous graphene (PGR) as the platform for the biocatalytic deposition of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). The biosensor showed a linear range from 0.25 to 27.5 μM with a detection limit of 0.05 μM (S/N = 3) towards glucose. Furthermore, the proposed AuNPs/GOx–PGR modified glassy carbon electrode (AuNPs/GOx–PGR/GCE) achieved direct electron transfer of GOx.

Noncovalent Protein and Peptide Functionalization of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes for Biodelivery and Optical Sensing Applications

The exquisite structural and optical characteristics of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), combined with the tunable specificities of proteins and peptides, can be exploited to strongly benefit technologies with applications in fields ranging from biomedicine to industrial biocatalysis. The key to exploiting the synergism of these materials is designing protein/peptide-SWCNT conjugation schemes that preserve biomolecule activity while keeping the near-infrared optical and electronic properties of SWCNTs intact. Since sp² bond-breaking disrupts the optoelectronic properties of SWCNTs, noncovalent conjugation strategies are needed to interface biomolecules to the nanotube surface for optical biosensing and delivery applications. An underlying understanding of the forces contributing to protein and peptide interaction with the nanotube is thus necessary to identify the appropriate conjugation design rules for specific applications. This article explores the molecular interactions that govern the adsorption of peptides and proteins on SWCNT surfaces, elucidating contributions from individual amino acids as well as secondary and tertiary protein structure and conformation. Various noncovalent conjugation strategies for immobilizing peptides, homopolypeptides, and soluble and membrane proteins on SWCNT surfaces are presented, highlighting studies focused on developing near-infrared optical sensors and molecular scaffolds for self-assembly and biochemical analysis. The analysis presented herein suggests that though direct adsorption of proteins and peptides onto SWCNTs can be principally applied to drug and gene delivery, in vivo imaging and targeting, or cancer therapy, nondirect conjugation strategies using artificial or natural membranes, polymers, or linker molecules are often better suited for biosensing applications that require conservation of biomolecular functionality or precise control of the biomolecule's orientation. These design rules are intended to provide the reader with a rational approach to engineering biomolecule-SWCNT platforms, broadening the breadth and accessibility of both wild-type and engineered biomolecules for SWCNT-based applications.

Bio-nano hybrid materials based on bacteriorhodopsin: Potential applications and future strategies

This review presents an overview of recent progress in the development of bio-nano hybrid materials based on the photoactive protein bacteriorhodopsin (bR). The interfacing of bR with various nanostructures including colloidal nanoparticles (such as quantum dots and Ag NPs) and nanoparticulate thin films (such as TiO2 NPs and ZnO NPs,) has developed novel functional materials. Applications of these materials are comprehensively reviewed in two parts: bioelectronics and solar energy conversion. Finally, some perspectives on possible future strategies in bR-based nanostructured devices are presented.

Exploring the diameter and surface dependent conformational changes in carbon nanotube-protein corona and the related cytotoxicity

In this work, we investigated and compared carbon nanotubes (CNTs) of different diameters regarding their interaction with bovine serum albumin (BSA) and their ability to alter protein structure. BSA was exposed to CNT solutions, and the effects were assessed by utilizing fluorescence spectroscopy, UV-vis absorption spectroscopy, circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), bichinchoninic acid (BCA) and zeta-potential measurement assays. We demonstrate that CNT diameter and surface area play key roles in influencing the stability of adsorbed proteins. Results showed that the secondary and tertiary structural stability of BSA decreased upon adsorption onto CNTs, with greater decrease on smaller-diametered nanotubes. Besides, more protein was loaded onto CNTs with small diameter, reducing the cytotoxicity. This study, therefore, provides fundamental information for the influence of CNT diameter and surface on protein behavior, which may be helpful to understand toxic effects of CNTs and prove beneficial for developing novel biomedical devices and safe use of nanomaterials.

Photoinduced electron transfer pathways in hydrogen-evolving reduced graphene oxide-boosted hybrid nano-bio catalyst

Photocatalytic production of clean hydrogen fuels using water and sunlight has attracted remarkable attention due to the increasing global energy demand. Natural and synthetic dyes can be utilized to sensitize semiconductors for solar energy transformation using visible light. In this study, reduced graphene oxide (rGO) and a membrane protein bacteriorhodopsin (bR) were employed as building modules to harness visible light by a Pt/TiO2 nanocatalyst. Introduction of the rGO boosts the nano-bio catalyst performance that results in hydrogen production rates of approximately 11.24 mmol of H2 (μmol protein)(-1) h(-1). Photoelectrochemical measurements show a 9-fold increase in photocurrent density when TiO2 electrodes were modified with rGO and bR. Electron paramagnetic resonance and transient absorption spectroscopy demonstrate an interfacial charge transfer from the photoexcited rGO to the semiconductor under visible light.

pH-Sensitive photoinduced energy transfer from bacteriorhodopsin to single-walled carbon nanotubes in SWNT-bR hybrids

Energy transfer mechanisms in noncovalently bound bacteriorhodopsin/single-walled carbon nanotube (SWNT) hybrids are investigated using optical absorption and photoluminescence excitation measurements. The morphology of the hybrids was investigated by atomic force microscopy. In this study, proteins are immobilized onto the sidewall of the carbon nanotubes using a sodium cholate suspension-dialysis method that maintains the intrinsic optical and fluorescence properties of both molecules. The hybrids are stable in aqueous solutions for pH ranging from 4.2 to 9 and exhibit photoluminescence properties that are pH-dependent. The study reveals that energy transfer from bacteriorhodopsin to carbon nanotubes takes place. So, at pH higher than 5 and up to 9, the SWNTs absorb the photons emitted by the aromatic residues of the protein, inducing a strong increase in intensity of the E11 emissions of SWNTs through their E33 and E44 excitations. From pH = 4.2 to pH = 5, the protein fluorescence is strongly quenched whatever the emission wavelengths, while additional fluorescence features appear at excitation wavelengths ranging from 660 to 680 nm and at 330 nm. The presence of these features is attributed to a resonance energy transfer mechanism that has an efficiency of 0.94 ± 0.02. More, by increasing the pH of the dispersion, the fluorescence characteristics become those observed at higher pH values and vice versa.

Interactions between proteins and carbon-based nanoparticles: exploring the origin of nanotoxicity at the molecular level

The widespread application of nanomaterials has spurred an interest in the study of interactions between nanoparticles and proteins due to the biosafety concerns of these nanomaterials. In this review, a summary is presented of some of the recent studies on this important subject, especially on the interactions of proteins with carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and metallofullerenols. Two potential molecular mechanisms have been proposed for CNTs' inhibition of protein functions. The driving forces of CNTs' adsorption onto proteins are found to be mainly hydrophobic interactions and the so-called π-π stacking between CNTs' carbon rings and proteins' aromatic residues. However, there is also recent evidence showing that endohedral metallofullerenol Gd@C82 (OH)22 can be used to inhibit tumor growth, thus acting as a potential nanomedicine. These recent findings have provided a better understanding of nanotoxicity at the molecular level and also suggested therapeutic potential by using nanoparticles' cytotoxicity against cancer cells.

Activity of catalase adsorbed to carbon nanotubes: effects of carbon nanotube surface properties

Nanomaterials have been studied widely as the supporting materials for enzyme immobilization. However, the interactions between enzymes and carbon nanotubes (CNT) with different morphologies and surface functionalities may vary, hence influencing activities of the immobilized enzyme. To date how the adsorption mechanisms affect the activities of immobilized enzyme is not well understood. In this study the adsorption of catalase (CAT) on pristine single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNT), oxidized single-walled carbon nanotubes (O-SWNT), and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNT) was investigated. The adsorbed enzyme activities decreased in the order of O-SWNT>SWNT>MWNT. Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and circular dichrois (CD) analyses reveal more significant loss of α-helix and β-sheet of MWNT-adsorbed than SWNT-adsorbed CAT. The difference in enzyme activities between MWNT-adsorbed and SWNT-adsorbed CAT indicates that the curvature of surface plays an important role in the activity of immobilized enzyme. Interestingly, an increase of β-sheet content was observed for CAT adsorbed to O-SWNT. This is likely because as opposed to SWNT and MWNT, O-SWNT binds CAT largely via hydrogen bonding and such interaction allows the CAT molecule to maintain the rigidity of enzyme structure and thus the biological function.

Single-walled carbon nanotubes alter cytochrome c electron transfer and modulate mitochondrial function

Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) are broadly used for various biomedical applications such as drug delivery, in vivo imaging, and cancer photothermal therapy due to their unique physiochemical properties. However, once they enter the cells, the effects of SWCNTs on the intracellular organelles and macromolecules are not comprehensively understood. Cytochrome c (Cyt c), as a key component of the electron transport chain in mitochondria, plays an essential role in cellular energy consumption, growth, and differentiation. In this study, we found the mitochondrial membrane potential and mitochondrial oxygen uptake were greatly decreased in human epithelial KB cells treated with SWCNTs, which accompanies the reduction of Cyt c. SWCNTs deoxidized Cyt c in a pH-dependent manner, as evidenced by the appearance of a 550 nm characteristic absorption peak, the intensity of which increased as the pH increased. Circular dichroism measurement confirmed the pH-dependent conformational change, which facilitated closer association of SWCNTs with the heme pocket of Cyt c and thus expedited the reduction of Cyt c. The electron transfer of Cyt c is also disturbed by SWCNTs, as measured with electron spin resonance spectroscopy. In conclusion, the redox activity of Cyt c was affected by SWCNTs treatment due to attenuated electron transfer and conformational change of Cyt c, which consequently changed mitochondrial respiration of SWCNTs-treated cells. This work is significant to SWCNTs research because it provides a novel understanding of SWCNTs' disruption of mitochondria function and has important implications for biomedical applications of SWCNTs.

Surface chemical functionalization of single walled carbon nanotubes with a bacteriorhodopsin mutant

In this work, single walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) have been chemically functionalized at their walls with a membrane protein, namely the mutated bacteriorhodopsin D96N, integrated in its native archaeal lipid membrane. The modification of the SWNT walls with the mutant has been carried out in different buffer solutions, at pH 5, 7.5 and 9, to investigate the anchoring process, the typical chemical and physical properties of the component materials being dependent on the pH. The SWNTs modified by interactions with bacteriorhodopsin membrane patches have been characterized by UV-vis steady state, Raman and attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and by atomic force and transmission electron microscopy. The investigation shows that the membrane protein patches wrap the carbon walls by tight chemical interactions undergoing a conformational change; such chemical interactions increase the mechanical strength of the SWNTs and promote charge transfers which p-dope the nano-objects. The functionalization, as well as the SWNT doping, is favoured in acid and basic buffer conditions; such buffers make the nanotube walls more reactive, thus catalysing the anchoring of the membrane protein. The direct electron communication among the materials can be exploited for effectively interfacing the transport properties of carbon nanotubes with both molecular recognition capability and photoactivity of the cell membrane for sensing and photoconversion applications upon integration of the achieved hybrid materials in sensors or photovoltaic devices.